Wiley's Real Latin Read online

  In response to the second issue, we have used passages from Latin authors throughout. This has caused some problems, not the least of which is finding “simple” examples that actually reflect the grammar introduced in each chapter; however, the benefits of using examples from Latin authors are clear even early on: students appreciate and are enthusiastic about dealing with ancient texts instead of “made-up” Latin sentences, which research has shown reflect English and not Latin idiom; by introducing readings from ancient texts the flexibility of Latin word order becomes apparent; it is possible to engage in meaningful discussions of various stylistic features of the passages; and when students have completed the course, they approach longer texts with less trepidation and greater confidence. Of course, it is not possible (nor would it be useful) to introduce all of the difficult constructions and irregularities that occur; however, we feel that the text covers just the right amount to allow students to begin to come to grips with the Latin of Caesar, Cicero, Ovid, and other authors (students may be directed to Appendix 6 for biographies of the authors as they appear in the text).

  We also believe strongly in the importance of translation practice from English into Latin as a means of promoting an active knowledge of grammatical constructions and vocabulary. Even here, the sentences to be translated are chosen from Latin authors so that the students can compare their own translations with the Latin original and thus improve their understanding of the style and idiom of different authors. This is a unique approach and feedback from students on this exercise has been uniformly positive.

  In each chapter we aim for variety – a mixture of forms, grammatical explanations, and vocabulary – and here again student feedback and suggestions have been invaluable. Some difficult choices have been made in the order of presentation of grammatical constructions and accidence. For example, we have chosen to introduce formally the comparative and superlative relatively late, supplying early instances as items of vocabulary. Once the subjunctive has been introduced in Chapter 13, more complicated passages are introduced and in each chapter a reading is provided without any vocabulary help in order to increase students' confidence and skill in using a Latin dictionary. These are best used selectively.

  We have found that it is neither possible nor advisable to attempt to translate every sentence in class; rather the most successful approach, especially early on, is to limit the number to four each per chapter (of Latin to English and English to Latin). This method allows for detailed discussion of the constructions involved. In the online material one sentence has been selected from each of the first 12 chapters and a detailed list of questions and points for discussion is provided for each. This material reflects an in-class method that has proven very successful and that allows student to engage fully with the Latin texts. Sentences not prepared in advance for class may be assigned to be handed in. In this regard it has also been useful to offer further advice and tips on translating, for example, pointing out apparent oddities in word order and forms. Translations of all of the sentences will be available online and so instructors may choose when or if to give these to the students.

  We have included some suggestions for shorter drills in the review chapters that appear throughout the text; however, there is not sufficient space to offer as many as we would like. When using the text we have found it helpful to ask students, for example, to decline noun adjective combinations or conjugate verbs; short vocabulary tests every other week are also a helpful tool. Various additional exercises are available online: suggested format for semester tests; tense synopses; questions about English derivatives from Latin words; extra short connected passages from other Latin authors (here, for example, mythological stories from Hyginus have proved very popular with students); further examples to illustrate complicated constructions such as the ablative absolute; and for those who are more ambitious we have created commentaries for Cicero In Catilinam 1.1–1.13, In Verrem 2.5.1–7 and Ovid Metamorphoses 4.55–166 (Pyramus and Thisbe).

  A word on presentation: in the vocabularies for the separate chapters the same Latin word may appear more than once. This is because the word may have different meanings in each of the chapters concerned or it may be considered an important one to learn. In the consolidated vocabulary at the end all these different meanings are brought together under each lemma. In the individual chapter vocabularies the principal parts of regular first conjugation verbs, e.g., portō, portāre, portāvī, portātum, and of third declension nouns, e.g., opinio, opiniōnis, are given in different formats, whereas in the final consolidated vocabulary these are abbreviated, e.g., portō, -are, opinio, -ōnis; the principal parts of all other verbs (including deponents) are written out in full in the consolidated vocabulary. The use of different styles allows students to become familiar with various traditions.

  Learning vocabulary is a perennial issue with students. We have found that assigning frequently occurring items to be learned for short vocabulary tests is useful, but only to a certain extent. Reading as much Latin as time allows and focusing on translation skills is the best way for students to begin to acquire a solid basic vocabulary.

  We teach the text over two 11-week semesters and this works well; however, there is a clear break at Chapter 12 before the subjunctive is introduced and so a flexible approach is possible; depending on the class and requirements, more time may be spent on the basic constructions (for example 1–12 over two semesters).

  Last, but perhaps most important: we have tried to strike a balance in our approach. On the one hand, our students have responded most favorably to what may be called our academic approach. Latin is a difficult language to learn and we make no excuses or apologies for this. Students respond well to this approach rather than to something they feel is “watered-down.” On the other hand, we have tried to make the learning of the language fun by introducing some of the technical rhetorical terms and pointing out, for example, how politicians today are as fond of a tricolon as were Cicero, Virgil, and Ovid; also by setting the historical context, rather than simply focusing on grammar and forms. It is also inspiring to remind students that they are among the few who are setting out on a journey that will allow them to begin to appreciate the great literature of Rome, its influence on later authors and its importance for 2000 years of scholarship.

  The authors would like to thank those who reviewed an earlier manuscript of the text and offered valuable criticisms; also Haze Humbert, Deirdre Ilkson, Galen Young, and Louise Spencely for all of their help and advice; finally, and above all, our students whose enthusiasm and eagerness to learn have made the effort of putting this text together worthwhile. In this regard we would particularly like to thank James Brookes, Sam Penberthy, Tara Strange, Chris Lill, Ian Greenfield, and above all Anna Reeve and Sally Baume.

  INTRODUCTION

  Chapter Contents

  0.1 PARTS OF SPEECH 0.1.1 Nouns

  0.1.2 Adjectives

  0.1.3 Pronouns

  0.1.4 Verbs

  0.1.5 Adverbs

  0.1.6 Prepositions

  0.1.7 Conjunctions

  0.1.8 Interjections

  0.2 THE PRONUNCIATION OF LATIN 0.2.1 Consonants

  0.2.2 Vowels

  0.2.3 Diphthongs

  FIGURE 0.1 The Colosseum, Rome. Begun by the emperor Vespasian, the Colosseum was completed in ad 80 by his son, the emperor Titus. As many as 50,000 people came to watch games (ludi) presented there. Source: courtesy Sam Penberthy

  0.1 Parts of Speech

  Latin has eight main parts of speech: nouns (also called substantives), adjectives, pronouns, verbs, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, interjections.

  0.1.1 Nouns

  A noun is the name of a person (Caesar), place (Rome), thing (tree), or abstract idea (love). Nouns which refer to the names of persons or places are called proper nouns; all other nouns are called common nouns (for reference: concrete nouns refer to objects we can perceive with our five senses, for example, tree; collective nouns refer to a group
of individuals or things which can be regarded as forming a single unity such as army; and an abstract noun denotes a quality or implies an action, for example beauty, peace, love, etc.).

  In Latin a noun has gender (i.e. is masculine, feminine, or neuter), number (i.e. is either singular or plural), and case (for the definition of the term case, see Chapter 1).

  0.1.2 Adjectives

  An adjective is a word that is applied to a noun to indicate a quality of the noun that the adjective is said to modify. Examples: good, bad, many, three, his, and so forth. An adjective may be used attributively: she reads good books; or predicatively: these books are good. The first example defines the noun more closely (not simply books, but good books); the second denotes a quality which is said to belong to the noun (a predicative adjective occurs after its noun and frequently in the predicate of a sentence containing forms of the verb “to be” or other copulative or linking verbs such as “to become” and “to seem”). Note also the following: we are painting the white house (attributive adjective); we are painting the house white (predicative adjective).

  Like nouns, adjectives in Latin also have three genders as well as number and case. A fundamental principle in Latin: adjectives take the same case, gender, and number as the nouns they modify.

  0.1.3 Pronouns

  Pronouns are words used in place of a noun to indicate a person or thing without actually naming the person or thing. There are various types of pronoun: personal – I, you, he, she, etc.; impersonal – it; demonstrative – this, that, etc.; relative – who, which, etc.; and others which will be discussed as they arise.

  0.1.4 Verbs

  A verb is a word which denotes an action or state: I run, people live. Verb forms may be finite or non-finite.

  Finite verbs are defined by five qualities: person 1st (I/we), 2nd (you), 3rd (he, she, it, they, and all nouns generally: e.g., Virgil writes poetry), number (singular or plural), tense (present, future, perfect, imperfect, future perfect, pluperfect), mood (indicative, subjunctive, imperative), voice (active where the subject of the verb performs the action or passive where the subject of the verb is the recipient of the action).

  Examples: Virgil wrote the Aeneid. The verb wrote is 3rd person, singular, perfect, indicative, active.

  The Aeneid was written by Virgil. The verb form was written is 3rd person, singular, perfect, indicative, passive.

  There are also non-finite verb forms. An example of a non-finite verb is the infinitive: in English to see, for example. Notice that an infinitive does not have person. You cannot say, for example, I to see you.

  In addition verbs may be transitive, i.e., those which take a direct object: I am reading a book, or intransitive, i.e., those which do not take a direct object: I am going to Athens.

  Finally, there is a further class of verbs called copulative or linking verbs which simply link the subject of the sentence with another noun, pronoun, or adjective in the predicate of the sentence: he is tall. The most important of these is the verb to be.

  0.1.5 Adverbs

  Adverbs, generally speaking, modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. They are words that express manner: she ran quickly; time: he went out then; place: I fell there. An example of an adverb modifying an adjective: he is incredibly wise.

  0.1.6 Prepositions

  Prepositions are words that are usually placed before nouns and pronouns to define more closely their relation to other words in the sentence: to, for, from, by, with, on, etc. Example: we are coming to the city with our friends.

  0.1.7 Conjunctions

  Conjunctions are words that join together words, phrases, and sentences. They are divided into two classes: co-ordinating and subordinating. Co-ordinating conjunctions simply join together words or clauses of equal grammatical rank: you are leaving but I shall see you soon and then we shall be together again. Notice that each of the three clauses forms a complete grammatical sentence and that each could stand on its own as an independent sentence. There are various co-ordinating conjunctions: and, but, or, etc.

  Subordinating conjunctions join together clauses which are not of equal grammatical rank, i.e., the one is subordinate to, or dependent upon, the other: when you come, I will see you. The clause when you come cannot stand on its own as a grammatical sentence; it depends upon the main clause to complete its sense and for that reason is called a subordinate clause. There are many subordinating conjunctions: when, after, while, since, if, unless, although, etc.

  0.1.8 Interjections

  Interjections are words which are “thrown in among” the other words of a sentence. They are grammatically independent and usually express some feeling or emotion as, for example: O! What a mess.

  FIGURE 0.2 Hadrian's Wall, Northumberland, England. Milecastle 39 from the east. Hadrian's Wall was built in the 120s ad on the northern frontier of Roman Britain. Fortified gateways (milecastles) were positioned every Roman mile along the 80-mile length of the wall. Source: courtesy Sally Baume

  0.2 The Pronunciation of Latin

  Although Latin is no longer a living, spoken language, it is possible to establish with a fair degree of certainty how it was pronounced by using such evidence as inscriptions, transcriptions into Greek letters, and by working back from the history of its descendants, the Romance languages (French, Spanish, Italian etc.).

  The alphabet is the same as our own, except that i was used by the Romans for both the vowel i and the consonant j (pronounced y), and u (with its upper case equivalent V) was used for both the vowel u and the consonant v (pronounced w). In this book, following the conventions of most modern printed Latin texts, v will be used for consonantal u throughout, e.g., vacca (not uacca), but i will be used both for the vowel and for consonantal i, e.g., iacio (not jacio). Students must, however, be prepared to see consonantal u written as u (e.g., uacca) in other texts, e.g., the Oxford Classical Texts series, and also, occasionally for consonantal i to be written as j (e.g., jacio) in some older texts, e.g., C.T. Lewis and C. Short's A Latin Dictionary.

  0.2.1 Consonants

  The consonants d, f, h, l, m, n, p, q, r, and z are pronounced as in English. The remainder have the following modifications:

  b as in English, except it is pronounced as p before s and t: e.g., urbs (urps), obtestor (optestor)

  c always a hard k sound, as in cat, never a soft s sound, as in civil, even before i and e: e.g., cibus (kibus), cēna (kena)

  g always a hard g sound, as in good, never a soft sound as in general, even before i and e: e.g., gerō

  i before vowels is pronounced like the consonant y in yes and yacht: e.g., iaceō (yakeo), iam (yam)

  s always “unvoiced” as in set, never a “voiced” z sound as in his: e.g., semper, bis

  t as in English, except it never changes to a sh- sound before i as in exception: e.g., tam, contiō

  v before vowels is pronounced like the consonant w in watch: e.g., vacca (wacca), volō (wolo).

  x always a cs sound as in excellent, never a gs sound as in examine: e.g., ex, maximus

  Double consonants should be pronounced twice as in English compounds such as bus-service, unnamed, book-keeper: e.g., agger, annus (as contrasted with ager, anus).

  0.2.2 Vowels

  Latin has the same five vowels as English, a, e, i, o, u. Each vowel has a long and short pronunciation. Sometimes long forms are marked in dictionaries by a macron (a bar over a vowel is used to indicate that the vowel is long), e.g., frāter; you will find other texts often indicate the length of vowels. Vowel lengths need to be learnt for pronunciation and scansion of poetry. Long vowels will be marked when they appear in declensions and conjugations and in the vocabulary lists. Following the convention of scholarly texts we have not marked vowel lengths in the sentences for translation. The pronunciation of vowels is as follows:

  a long as in father, e.g., fānum

  a short as in at, e.g., annus

  e long as in they, e.g., rēmus

  e short as in let, e.g., celsus
<
br />   i long as in speak, e.g., mīles

  i short as in bit, e.g., cibus

  o long as in boat, e.g., ōtium

  o short as in cot, e.g., quot

  u long as in coot, e.g., sūmo

  u short as in put, e.g., sub.

  Occasionally y is found in words borrowed from Greek, mainly proper names. Its correct pronunciation is as a French u (as in tu) or German ü (as in über), although it is often assimilated to i. The vowel may be either long, as in Lȳdia, or short, as in Lycoris.