First Among Equals Read online

  The eldest son of Irish immigrants, Chifley was born on 22 September 1885 in Bathurst, New South Wales. At the age of five, he was sent to live and work on his grandfather’s farm at Limekilns near Bathurst. Following his grandfather’s death in 1899, Chifley returned home where he spent two years at the Patrician Brothers’ School in Bathurst. He then worked various jobs before finding employment with the New South Wales railways. Starting out as a shop boy, Chifley worked his way up to become the youngest first-class locomotive driver in the state, at the age of 24.

  Defying the Catholic Church and his family, in 1914 Chifley married Elizabeth Mackenzie, the Presbyterian daughter of another railway driver. An avowed socialist, Chifley participated in the anti-conscription movement during World War I and in the prolonged 1917 railway strike, which resulted in his dismissal. While eventually reinstated, Chifley had to wait eight years to regain his former position.

  In 1928 Chifley won the Bathurst-based seat of Macquarie in the House of Representatives. Then, when Scullin’s Labor government came to power, Chifley was appointed the minister for defence in 1931. But with the world teetering on the verge of economic depression the Labor Party began to fracture, and as a consequence Scullin and Chifley, along with many other Labor parliamentarians, were swept out of office later that year.

  After their defeat, Chifley kept up his morale working as a councillor for the Abercrombie Shire Council, becoming a member of the district hospital committee and working as a director of the National Advocate newspaper. In 1935 incumbent prime minister Joseph Lyons appointed him to the Royal Commission into the banking sector. Disagreeing with the commission’s findings, Chifley released his own statement calling for the nationalisation of banks.

  In 1940 Chifley finally regained his seat of Macquarie, holding it for the next four elections. The following year when Curtin came to power, Chifley was appointed treasurer. During the war years Chifley effectively managed to increase government expenditure on wartime production while not burdening the country with debt.

  Following Curtin’s death in 1945, Chifley defeated Forde for the leadership of the Labor Party and was appointed prime minister.

  Once in power Chifley continued working to stabilise Australia’s post-war economy, introducing strict currency controls, rationing, limiting imports, cutting the country’s foreign debt and implementing antiinflation measures. His government’s accomplishments included: the initiation of the Snowy Mountains Hydroelectric Scheme; the assisted post-war immigration program; improvement of the social services system; establishment of Trans-Australia Airlines (TAA) and the nationalisation of QANTAS; and the launching of Australia’s first mass-produced car, the Holden.

  In mid-1947 Chifley announced the government’s intention to nationalise the banks, antagonising the private banks who turned middle-class opinion against Labor. After an appeal to the High Court, however, Chifley’s legislation was ruled unconstitutional and overturned. Then in mid-1949, with a coal strike threatening to paralyse the economy, Chifley took drastic action and sent in the army. While the strike was broken, the Coalition claimed Chifley was leading Australia down the path of socialism. Chifley’s Labor government was defeated on 19 December 1949.

  While Menzies’ Liberal-Country coalition was returned to power, Labor retained control of the Senate. With Chifley now the opposition leader, Labor fought to defeat Menzies’ Communist Party Dissolution Bill introduced in April 1950, which denied basic civil liberties to anyone the government declared to be a Communist. When war broke out in Korea, Menzies exploited anti-Communist hysteria and threatened a double dissolution if the Senate refused to pass the bill. After some amendments Labor passed the bill, though it was later ruled unconstitutional by the High Court.

  On 26 November 1950 Chifley suffered a heart attack. Against doctor’s orders he returned to work in February 1951. He then died on the way to hospital after another heart attack in Canberra on 13 June 1951. On hearing the news, Menzies, who was attending a state ball at King’s Hall in Parliament House, made the announcement to the stunned guests, bringing the festivities to a sudden end.

  CHAPTER 4

  THE WONDER YEARS (1949-72)

  The post-war period in Australia marked a unique turning point in the country’s history. For more than 23 years, from 1949 to 1972, Australia was ruled by the conservative coalition led by the Liberal Party. It was an era dominated by the formidable Robert Menzies, who served just over sixteen years as prime minister, and rounded off with the Liberal Party’s Holt, Gorton and McMahon and the Country Party’s McEwen.

  The post-war period was a time of prosperity marked by the dramatic influx of European immigrants, who enlivened the country’s culture and broadened the nation’s vision. In October 1949 work began on the Snowy Mountains Hydro-electric Scheme. A year later Australia followed the US into the Korean War and then, in 1951, signed the ANZUS security treaty with the US and New Zealand. Then in 1956, Melbourne hosted the Olympic Games — the first games to be broadcast to the world.

  By the 1960s, however, the mood began to change. In 1964 conscription was reintroduced and then in 1965 Menzies announced Australian troops would be sent to Vietnam to support US forces. While initially Australia’s involvement was widely supported, peaking with the 1966 landslide victory for Menzies’ successor, Holt, as the war dragged on and more lives were lost, the tide began to turn.

  After clinging to office in 1969, the coalition government, besieged by internal conflicts, began to disintegrate. From 1968 to 1970 thousands of demonstrators took to the streets of Sydney and Melbourne protesting Australia’s continued involvement in the ‘unwinnable’ war. Then in 1972, after more than two decades in opposition, the Labor Party launched their ‘It’s Time’ campaign, eventually bringing the Coalition’s ‘wonder years’ to a grinding halt.

  SIR ROBERT GORDON MENZIES

  THE MAN THEY CALLED ‘MING’

  TERMS

  26 April 1939-29 August 1941

  19 December 1949-26 January 1966

  Australia’s longest-serving prime minister, Sir Robert Gordon Menzies ruled the country for a grand total of eighteen years, five months and ten days. Dubbed ‘Ming the Merciless’, he was renowned for his steadfast self-confidence which earned him respect and made him enemies.

  Born on 20 December 1894, Menzies grew up in Jeparit in Victoria. At an early age he displayed a singleminded determination that would characterise his later life, winning several scholarships and attending both Grenville and Wesley colleges. Menzies studied law at the University of Melbourne, graduating with first-class honours in 1916. During World War I, Menzies, still at university, undertook compulsory military training, but did not enlist for overseas services — a decision that would come back to haunt him.

  In May 1918 Menzies was admitted to the Bar. Two years later he married Pattie Maie Leckie, the daughter of a Victorian National Party parliamentarian. With his father and his uncle also serving in the Victorian parliament, Menzies soon entered politics. In 1928, Menzies was elected to the Victorian Legislative Council after winning a by-election for the seat of East Yarra for the Nationalist Party. Soon after he became a minister without portfolio, he resigned in protest against rural employment subsidies. The following year, Menzies became the youngest King’s Counsel in Australia and transferred to the Legislative Assembly as a member for Nunawading.

  With the United Australia Party (UAP) winning government in the 1932 Victorian state election, Menzies was appointed attorney-general, minister for railways and deputy premier. He quit state politics in 1934 to contest the federal seat of Kooyong for the UAP. Menzies was soon appointed as attorney-general and minister for industry serving under Joseph Lyons. In 1939, however, Menzies resigned from cabinet over amendments to the National Insurance Act.

  When Lyons suddenly died in office in April 1939, Earle Page was sworn in as interim prime minister. Against strong opposition from Page, who attacked Menzies for being disloyal to Lyons and accused hi
m of cowardice for not having enlisted in the war, Menzies was elected leader of the UAP and assumed the office of prime minister.

  On 3 September 1939, Britain declared war on Germany. Without consulting cabinet Menzies announced that Australia, too, was at war. He then began mobilising the country’s war effort, establishing a war cabinet and introducing censorship, price controls, conscription for home defence and petrol rationing. In 1940 Menzies sent Australian troops to fight in Europe and North Africa.

  While Menzies’ government survived the 1940 election with the support of two independents, disenchantment with his leadership was growing. In early 1941 Menzies travelled to Britain to discuss war strategies with Winston Churchill. On his return, having lost the support of his party, he was forced to resign and was replaced by Arthur Fadden in August 1941.

  Menzies then retired to the backbench before returning to his legal practice in Melbourne. However, after the Coalition’s humiliating 1943 election defeat, Menzies was reinstated as leader of the UAP. He quickly worked to reunite the demoralised party under the new banner of the Liberal Party of Australia and rebuild their alliance with the Country Party. With the electorate unhappy with Ben Chifley’s plan to nationalise banks and tiring of the prolonged coalmine strikes, Menzies easily won the December 1949 election and again became prime minister.

  In 1951 Menzies attempted to outlaw and dissolve the Australian Communist Party. However, the Labor Party retained control of the Senate and fought the bill. While the bill was eventually passed by parliament it was stopped by the High Court which ruled it unconstitutional. As a result the Labor Party split and Menzies requested a double dissolution, consequently gaining control of both Houses. He then called for a referendum to change the Constitution and push through the bill, however, it was defeated.

  In an effort to increase his popularity, Menzies played on Communist fears in his campaign for the 1954 election. On the eve of the election, he announced to a stunned parliament that a Soviet diplomat, Vladimir Petrov, had defected and that there was evidence of Soviet spying in Australia. He consequently won the election, but with a reduced minority.

  A staunch monarchist, Menzies stringently upheld the traditional view of British Empire. In 1950 Menzies sent Australian forces to combat Communist guerrillas in Malaya, committed Australia to the Korean War and supported British and French intervention in the Suez Canal Crisis of 1956. He was later rewarded for his loyalty and knighted by the Queen in 1963.

  Much of the 1950s was marked by good fortune for Menzies. With the Labor Party in disarray and the economy on a high, Menzies easily won the 1955 and 1958 elections. A decade later his fortunes began to change. In late 1960, in an effort to restrain inflation, the Menzies government applied a credit squeeze, which caused unemployment to rise. Then in 1964 he reintroduced conscription and in 1965 committed Australian troops to Vietnam.

  On 26 January 1966, Menzies, at the age of 71, announced his retirement. Harold Holt became the new leader of the Liberal Party and prime minister. Following his retirement, Menzies became chancellor of the University of Melbourne. He was also granted one of the highest British awards, becoming Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports. Menzies died on 15 May 1978 in Melbourne. As Australia’s longest-serving prime minister, his state funeral was broadcast around the country.

  HAROLD EDWARD HOLT

  LOST AT SEA

  TERM

  26 January 1966-19 December 1967

  On 26 January 1966 Harold Edward Holt emerged, after 32 years as a federal parliamentarian, from behind the long shadow of Robert Menzies to take over the leadership of the country. The third prime minister to die in office, Holt is most remembered for the mysterious circumstances surrounding his death.

  Born in Sydney on 5 August 1908, Holt was the eldest of two sons of Thomas and Olive Holt. Holt’s parents divorced when he was ten years old and a year later he was sent to board at Wesley College in Melbourne, the same school attended by Menzies. A good student and hard worker, Holt won a scholarship for his leadership qualities and sporting abilities. Tragically, Holt’s mother died when he was sixteen.

  Holt attended the University of Melbourne where he took up debating and studied law. In 1926 he met his future wife, Zara Dickens. As he would not marry Zara until he could support her, she met and married an English cavalry officer. Only after her divorce did the couple eventually marry in 1946, with Holt adopting her three children.

  Graduating in 1930, Holt worked for a local solicitor’s firm and was admitted to the Bar in 1932. He then became secretary to the Victorian Cinematograph Exhibitors’ Association and an active member of the Young Nationalists. In 1933 Holt joined the United Australia Party (UAP) and in 1934 unsuccessfully stood for the federal seat of Yarra. Then, at the age of 27, Holt became one of the youngest members ever elected to parliament, winning the seat of Fawkner in a byelection in 1935.

  Holt was a backbencher in the Lyons government for four years, before being appointed as a minister without portfolio to Menzies’ government when the UAP came to power following Lyons’ death in 1939. In 1940 Holt enlisted in the army but, after five months, Menzies recalled him to parliament following the death of three cabinet ministers in an air crash. Holt was then appointed the minister for labour and national service and in 1941 introduced the Child Endowment Act. Holt, however, was relegated to the opposition backbench when Labor won power in 1941.

  Following Menzies’ 1949 victory, Holt was again appointed as the minister for labour and national service and was also given the immigration portfolio. He began to make changes to the White Australia policy, which had been in practice since 1901. Holt soon rose through the Liberal Party ranks, becoming deputy leader in 1956 and federal treasurer two years later. While treasurer, Holt had many achievements, including establishing the Reserve Bank; however, his 1960 budget triggered the country’s greatest credit squeeze since 1945 and almost brought down the government.

  In January 1966 when Menzies retired, Holt, at the age of 57, succeeded him, becoming Australia’s seventeenth prime minister. Stepping into the post during the ‘Swinging Sixties’, Holt found the mood of the country was changing and anguish was growing over Australia’s involvement in the Vietnam War. With the war intensifying, Holt flew to the US to meet with President LB Johnson and in a speech reported in The Australian adopted the ‘All the way with LBJ’ slogan, confirming his continued support of America’s Vietnam policy. When Johnson visited Australia later that year, the tour, the first ever by an American president, ignited violent anti-war demonstrations.

  Despite growing opposition to the war, Holt was returned to office in the November 1966 election. The following year was tumultuous for Holt’s government. While the government ran a successful ‘yes’ campaign for a constitutional referendum to include Aborigines in the national census, it also made a number of blunders including an embarrassing controversy over the alleged misuse of a VIP aircraft. which ultimately saw the government lose control of the Senate. Then, Holt disappeared while swimming in heavy surf near Portsea, Victoria, on 17 December 1967. His body has never been found and rumours and theories surrounding the circumstances of his disappearance continue to this day.

  On 22 December 1967, a memorial service was held at St Paul’s Cathedral, Melbourne, and was attended by US President LB Johnson, the Prince of Wales, British Prime Minister Harold Wilson and a large contingent of international dignitaries.

  SIR JOHN MCEWEN

  THE MAN THEY CALLED ‘BLACK JACK’

  TERM

  19 December 1967-10 January 1968

  Following Harold Holt’s dramatic disappearance, John McEwen, then deputy prime minister and leader of the Country Party, was appointed caretaker prime minister on 19 December 1967. McEwen’s impact on Australian politics was much greater than his 23-day tenure suggests. The only leader of the Coalition never to be defeated in a general election, McEwen served as deputy prime minister for twelve years and also served as acting prime minister on several oc
casions.

  McEwen was born in Chiltern, Victoria, on 29 March 1900. Sadly, both his parents died while he was young. He and his sister Amy were then raised by their grandmother in Wangaratta. After moving to Melbourne, McEwen left school at the age of thirteen to help support the family, though he continued his education at night school. After passing an examination for the Commonwealth Public Service, he was employed as a junior clerk with the Commonwealth Crown Solicitor’s office at the age of sixteen, and worked under Fred Whitlam, Gough Whitlam’s father.

  In 1918 McEwen enlisted in the Australian Imperial Force, but the war ended before he could join the army in France. After he was discharged, McEwen was granted land under the Soldier Resettlement Scheme at Stanhope in Victoria where he started up a dairy farm, though he later switched to grazing sheep. In 1919 McEwen joined the Victorian Farmers’ Union and then, on 21 September 1921, married Anne McLeod, the daughter of a farmer.

  McEwen first attempted to enter parliament in 1932, standing unsuccessfully as Country Party candidate for the seat of Waranga in the state election. Undeterred, he went on to win the federal seat of Echuca two years later. In 1937 McEwen was appointed the minister for the interior by Joseph Lyons, and then when Menzies came to power following Lyons’ death, became the minister for external affairs. His most significant act in this position was aiding a coup to overthrow the pro-Vichy French administration in New Caledonia, thus ensuring that when Japan entered the war in December 1941, New Caledonia was in Allied hands.

  When Archie Cameron resigned as leader of the Country Party in October 1940, McEwen contested the leadership. With the vote split between him and his opponent Earle Page, Arthur Fadden was handed the leadership. Fadden served as leader for the next eighteen years, taking over the office of prime minister briefly in 1941. Meanwhile, with World War II in full swing, McEwen served on the War Council in 1940, then on the all-party Advisory War Council until the end of the war in 1945.