Handbook of Psychology of Investigative Interviewing: Current Developments and Future Directions Read online

  to govern the rules of boxing and make it safer):

  The investigation of crime and the detection of criminals is not a game to be

  governed by the Marquis of Queensbury rules. The authorities, in dealing with

  shrewd and often sophisticated criminals, must sometimes out of necessity resort

  to tricks or other forms of deceit and should not, through the rule, be hampered

  in their work. What should be repressed vigorously is conduct on their part that

  shocks the community. ( R v Rothman [1981] )

  To free guilty suspects because there is insuffi cient evidence or because the

  confession is inadmissible in court may be shocking to the community.

  However, the former is the outcome in almost a third of investigations (Irving

  & McKenzie, 1989 ; Moston et al ., 1992 ; Leo, 1996 ).

  The Reid technique has been criticized by many over the decades, especially

  because it is said to be responsible for false confessions which can lead to

  miscarriages of justice. However, in Canada, where most police departments

  use the Reid (or a related) technique, miscarriages of justice linked to inter-

  rogations are few. Furthermore, when they do happen, they are often linked

  to other factors such as misidentifi cation, insuffi cient expertise and police

  misconduct. The rare recorded miscarriages seem to be attributed to long

  interrogations where the questions were repetitive and very suggestive. Most

  of the time, a confession is deemed inadmissible because it has been obtained

  in an illegal or unethical manner rather than because it is false (St - Yves, in

  press). Sometimes, however, the method of questioning can be too suggestive

  and can corrupt the truth and lead to false a confession. The lack of objectivity

  – commonly known as tunnel vision – and an unprofessional attitude are other

  factors that we often fi nd when such mistakes occur (FPT Heads of Prosecutions

  Committee Working Group, 2004 ).

  One of the best ways to control abuses and misconduct is, without doubt,

  the audiovisual recording of the interrogations and the sensitization of police

  offi cers to the potential risks – especially the risk of obtaining a false confession

  – associated with certain strategies and interrogation techniques; more

  specifi cally, when the person being interrogated is mentally vulnerable (mental

  health problems, limited intellectual ability) (see Kassin & Wrightsman, 1985 ;

  Gudjonsson, 2003 ).

  The Psychology of Suspects’ Decision-Making during Interrogation

  11

  In Canada, the audiovisual recording of interrogations is not limited to the

  suspect ’ s fi nal statement (recapitulation of the confession on video), but

  includes the whole interrogation, from the caution to the end of the interroga-

  tion. In addition, to preserve a verbatim record of the interrogation, the use

  of the audiovisual recording stimulates investigators to produce better quality

  interrogations while protecting them from unjustifi ed accusations (Pitt, Spiers,

  Dietz & Dvoskin, 1999 ). The audiovisual recording provides an objective fi le

  the judge can use to decide on the free and voluntary character of a confession

  and the circumstances in which it was obtained, as well as its contents, instead

  of relying on the subjective and interested claims made by the protagonists. It

  thus acts as an excellent way of preventing miscarriages of justice. It also acts

  as the most faithful witness of the interrogation process (St - Yves, 2004c ).

  Conclusion

  The decision - making process during police interrogations can be infl uenced

  by numerous factors. But it is the contextual factors that seem to have the

  most impact on the suspects

  ’ decision

  - making process and, moreover, on

  which police offi cers have a potential infl uence. Amongst these contextual

  factors, we fi nd the caution (the right to remain silent and to have access to

  legal advice), the quality/strength of evidence and the strategies and interroga-

  tion techniques. It is those interrogation methods that cause much of the

  controversy, either because they appear coercive, raise doubts with regard to

  the ‘ voluntary ’ nature of the confession, or can lead to false confessions and,

  ultimately, to miscarriages of justice. However, in spite of the risk of miscar-

  riages of justice associated with interviews with witnesses and victims, there is

  no apparent opposition to the interview methods used to facilitate the mne-

  monic recall of witnesses. However, training police offi cers on interrogation

  techniques and the risks that some of these present, as well as recording the

  entire interrogation process, are conditions that can considerably reduce the

  risks and doubts associated with police interrogation. Police training in inves-

  tigative interviewing is essential to ensure that the techniques used are in

  conformity with the law and that they exert a positive infl uence on the result

  of the investigation. It is also through training that we can recommend rules

  (see St - Yves, 2006a ) and ethical principles (see Home Offi ce circular 22/1992),

  as well as a philosophy centred on the search for truth instead of the quest for

  confession. Nevertheless, it is often through confession that we can reconstruct

  part of this truth.

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  The Psychology of Suspects’ Decision-Making during Interrogation