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  hereu (m.) pubilla (f.) heir/heiress of family fortune

  home (m.) dona (f.) man/husband/woman/wife

  marit (m.) muller (f.) husband/wife

  oncle (m.) tia (f.) uncle/aunt

  príncep (m.) princesa (f.) prince/princess

  ase (m.) somera (f.) stallion donkey/jenny (female donkey)

  boc/cabró/cabrot (m.) cabra (f.) billy goat/nanny goat

  cavall (m.) egua/euga (f.) stallion/mare

  gall dindi or indiot (m.) polla díndia (f.) turkey

  marrà (m.) ovella (f.) ram/ewe

  pore (m.) truja (f.) pig/hog/sow

  toro or brau (m.) vaca (f.) bull/cow

  bou (m.) ox

  1.1.5 Nouns of Common Gender

  There is a considerable number of nouns of common gender referring to humans. The same form is used with both masculine and feminine articles, for example, una asteca ‘a female Aztec’, un asteca ‘a male Aztec’/‘an Aztec (sex unspecified)’.

  There is a substantial number of common gender nouns ending in -a; the following are a representative sample:

  asteca (m./f.) Aztec

  belga (m./f.) Belgian

  carca (m./f.) reactionary

  Col·lega (m./f.) colleague

  demòcrata (m./f.) democrat

  dormilega (m./f.) sleepy-head

   Note dormilec (m.) is also found

  electricista (m./f.) electrician

  extra (m./f.) (film) extra

  ganàpia (m./f.) childish person

  gimnasta (m./f.) gymnast

  hipòcrita (m./f) hypocrite

  indígena (m./f) native

  judoka (m./f.) practitioner of judo

  pastifa (m./f) botcher

  terapeuta (m./f.) therapist

  Metaphorical/metonymic transfers

  Certain nouns ending in -a, regularly feminine and denoting inanimates in their literal sense, are also applied metaphorically or metonymically to humans; many of these are pejorative. Dictionaries record some as masculine only (in their transferred sense); others as masculine or feminine. These assignments are recorded below. There is little doubt that all of them can in fact be feminine if required.

  barra (m.) shameless person < barra (f.) impudence

  canalla (m.) cad < canalla (f.) (arch.) riff-raff

  consueta (m./f) prompt < consueta (f.) book of rituals

  cràpula (m.) drunkard, debauchee < cràpula (f.) drunkenness

  estafa (m./f.) swindler < estafa (f.) swindle

  fanfàrria (m./f.) braggart < fanfàrria (f.) bluster

  fava (m./f) indecisive person < fava (f.) broad bean

  guàrdia (m./f.) police officer < guàrdia (f.) protection, police force

  mala pinta (m./f.) rotter < mala pinta (f.) bad blotch

  mandra (m./f.) lazybones < mandra (f.) sloth, disinclination

  manta (m./f.) lazybones < manta (f.) blanket

  marieta (m.) poof < marieta (f.) ladybird

  maula (m./f) fraud < maula (f.) dirty trick, fraud

  ordenança (m.) batman < ordenança (f.) ordinance

  paleta (m./f.) bricklayer, building worker < paleta (f.) trowel

  peça (m./f.) bad sort < peça (f.) piece

  poca-solta (m./f.) idiot < poca solta (f.) little sense

  pocavergonya (m./f) shameless person < poca vergonya (f.) little shame

  policia (m./f.) police officer < policia (f.) police

  trafica (m./f) con-man < trafica (f.) trick

  etc.

  A few words similar in meaning to some of those above seem to be derived directly from verbs of Conjugation I, such as:

  bada (m./f) look-out < badar open (eyes, etc.)

  guaita (m./f.) watchman < guaitar look out

  guarda (m./f.) guard < guardar guard

  mossega (m./f.) profiteer < mossegar bite, look for profit

  espia (m./f.) spy < espiar Spy

  guia (m./f.) guide < guiar guide

  llepa (m./f.) bootlicker < llepar lick

  pispa (m./f.) pickpocket < pispar pinch, steal

  Just as consueta and paleta (see above) are applied both to the objects and the persons who habitually use them, so nouns denoting performers may also be derived directly from the name (feminine noun) of the musical instruments they play:

  viola (m./f.) viola player trompeta (m./f.) trumpeter

  trompa (m./f.) horn player flauta (m./f.) flautist

  corneta (m./f.) bugler

  Compound nouns

  A compound noun which denotes a human can be used in the same form as either masculine or feminine, whatever its structure, or whatever the underlying gender of any noun(s) it contains. For example:

  un/una adobacadires a person who repairs chairs

  un/una guardabarrera a level-crossing gate keeper

  un/una llepafils a fussy eater

  un/una mastegaparaules a person who talks with their mouth closed

  un/una portaveu a spokesperson

  un/una somiatruites a dreamer

  un/una tastaolletes a dilettante

  Similarly:

  pell-roja (m./f.) redskin pocatraça (m.lf) bungler

  setciències (m./f.) know-all plats-i-olles (m./f.) crockery seller

  malànima (m./f.) villain vetesifils (m./f.) haberdasher

  passavolant (m./f.) occasional customer capicausa (m./f.) etc. instigator

  Nouns in -Aire

  The common agent suffix -aire is invariable, for example:

  captaire (m./f) beggar terrissaire (m./f.) potter etc.

  Nouns in -ant, -ent

  The vast majority of nouns referring to humans ending in -ant or -ent are also invariable, such as:

  gerent (m./f.) manager

  televident (m.lf) (television) viewer

  vianant (m.lf) pedestrian

  etc.

  A couple of dozen do form feminines in -a however. These feminines are:

  -ant

  acompanyanta companion, accompanist

  ajudanta assistant

  berganta rascal

  comedianta comedian, hypocrite

  comercianta trader

  congreganta member of congregation

  dibuixanta draughtsman, designer

  estadanta resident

  estudianta student

  fíguranta walk-on part

  geganta giantess

  infanta princess

  santa saint

  viatjanta traveller

  -ent

  aprenenta apprentice

  assistenta attendant, social worker

  clienta client

  dependenta shop assistant

  intendenta supervisor

  parenta relative

  presidenta president

  pretendenta pretender, claimant, suitor

  regenta manager

  serventa servant

  Nouns in -al, -ar, -ble

  The majority of nouns ending in stressed -al, -ar, or -ble are also invariable, such as: el/la corresponsal ‘(newspaper) correspondent’, esquimal ‘Eskimo’, el/la rival ‘rival’, etc.; auxiliar ‘assistant’, balear ‘native of the Balearic islands’, escolar ‘(primary-school) pupil’, etc.; comptable ‘accountant’, doble ‘double’, noble ‘noble’, etc. There are only a few exceptions where -a is added to these endings to make a feminine, namely:

  -al

  col·legiala (secondary) schoolgirl

  generala mother superior; general’s wife

  majorala steward, overseer

  manescala vet

  menestrala artisan

  mariscala wife of marshal or major-general

  oficiala official, clerk

  -ar

  avara miser

  -ble

  deixebla disciple, student

  condeixebla fellow student

  Other nouns of common gender, denoting humans

  The number of other common gender human nouns is not large; the following is a fairly comprehensive list:

  afí (m./f.) relation by m
arriage

  almohade (m./f.) Almohad(e)

  almoràvit (m./f.) Almoravid(e)

  amateur (m./f.) amateur

  àrab (m./f.) Arab

  artífex (m./f.) craftsman, artificer

  banau (m./f) nincompoop, sucker

  bengalí (m./f.) Bengali

  berber (m./f.) Berber

  bus (m./f.) diver

  cafre (m./f.) brutal person

  cap (m./f.) head, chief

  còmplice (m./f.) accomplice

  cònjuge (m./f) spouse

  conserge (m./f.) concierge

  consort (m./f.) consort

  contralt (m./f.) contralto, alto

  daixonses (m./f) so-and-so

  dallonses (m./f) so-and-so

  esnob (m./f.) snob

  etíop (m./f.) Ethiopian

  extraterrestre (m./f) extraterrestrial

  fan (m./f.) fan

  golafre (m./f.) glutton

  hemeralop (m./f) sufferer from day blindness

  nictalop (m./f.) sufferer from night blindness

  heretge (m./f.) heretic

  hindú (m./f.) Hindu

  ianqui (m./f.) yankee

  intèrpret (m./f.) interpreter

  iogui (m./f) yogi

  jove (m./f) young man/woman

  lladre (m./f.) thief

  manxú (m./f.) Manchu

  màrtir (m./f.) martyr

  miop (m./f.) short-sighted person

  model (m./f.) model

  mossàrab (m./f.) Mozarab

  mudèjar (m./f.) Mudejar

  muladí (m./f.) (descendant of Hispano-gothic convert to Islam)

  muslim (m./f.) Muslim

  negroide (m./f.) negroid

  nyau-nyau or nyeu-nyeu (m./f.) hypocrite

  nyicris (m./f.) weakling

  orfebre (m./f.) goldsmith

  papú (m./f.) Papuan

  partícip (m./f.) participant, partaker

  pilot (m./f.) pilot

  ramarol (m./f) fidget

  rebel (m./f.) rebel

  repòrter (m./f.) reporter

  salvatge (m./f.) savage

  sequaç(m./f) follower, partisan (Note f.pl. is sequaces)

  soprano (m./f.) soprano

  testimoni (m./f) Witness

  tiple (m./f) treble, soprano

  víking (m./f.) Viking

  zulu (m./f.) Zulu

  1.1.6 Nouns of Fixed Gender

  A very few nouns referring to people are of fixed gender, that is, they retain the same form and grammatical gender whether a male or a female is referred to. Some (i) are basic nouns; others (ii) are terms applied metaphorically to humans, as are (iii) titles of address.

  bebè (m.) baby

  criatura (f.) baby

  individu (m.) individual

  persona (f.) person

  personatge (m.) character, personage

  víctima (f.) victim

  àngel (m.) angel

  celebritat (f.) celebrity

  desastre (m.) disaster

  estrella (f.) star

  geni (m.) genius

  patum (f.) celebrity

  visita (f.) visitor

  altesa (f.) Highness

  eminència (f.) Eminence

  excel·lència (f.) Excellency

  majestat (f.) Majesty

  santedat (f.) Holiness

  senyoria (f.) Lordship

  When these terms are applied to a human whose biological gender is known, the agreement of a predicative adjective or pronoun will typically follow the biological gender: Sa santedat el Papa està malalt ‘His Holiness the Pope is ill’, Ses alteses reials els prínceps estan molt complaguts del viatge ‘Their Royal Highnesses the Prince and Princess are very pleased with their trip’, Quina criatura! Que és petit! ‘What a (nice) baby! How small he is!’, but Les víctimes foren hospitalitzades ‘The victims (sex unknown) were taken to hospital’.

  1.1.7 Gender of Animal Names

  For the most part, only familiar or domestic animals and birds have separate forms for the male and the female of the species. Some of these, where the masculine and feminine words are unrelated, such as cavall (m.) ‘horse’, ‘stallion’, egua (f.) ‘mare’, have been mentioned above (1.1.4). Those where the masculine form is derived from the feminine with the suffix -ot were listed at 1.1.3, and feminines with special suffixes at 1.1.2. The remaining cases of animal names where a regularly formed masculine and feminine pair exists are these:

  ànec(m.) ànega (f.) duck

  cérvol (m.) cérvola (f.) stag/doe

  colom (m.) coloma (f.) pigeon, dove

  conill (m.) conilla (f.) rabbit

  elefant (m.) elefanta (f.) elephant

  garrí (m.) garrina (f.) piglet

  gat (m.) gata (f.) cat

  gos (m.) gossa (f.) dog/bitch

  jònec (m.) jònega (f.) bovine under two years old

  lleó (m.) lleona (f.) lion/lioness

  lleopard (m.) lleoparda (f.) leopard

  llop (m.) lloba (f.) wolf

  mul (m.) mula (f.) mule

  ós (m.) óssa (f.) bear

  paó (m.) paona (f.) peacock/peahen

  or pavó (m.) pavona (f.)

  poll (m.) polla (f.) chick, chicken (not poll (m.) ‘louse’)

  pollí (m.) pollina (f.) young ass

  porcell (m.) porcella (f.) piglet

  primal (m.) primala (f.) sheep or goat between one and two years old

  rue (m.) ruca (f.) ass

  vedell (m.) vedella (f.) calf (under one year old)

  xai (m.) xaia (f.) lamb

  A few apparent gender pairs may be misleading. The masculine and feminine words either denote different creatures, or are used equivalently, without regard to biological gender:

  cuc (m.) worm, maggot cuca (f.) bug, insect

  llagost (m.) locust llagosta (f.) 1 locust (= llagost),2 grasshopper, 3 lobster

  falcillot (m.) = falcilla (f.) swift

  granot (m.) = granota (f.) frog

  rat (m.) = rata (f.) rat

  talp (m.) = talpa (f.) mole

  If you want to distinguish the sex of any other animal you add mascle ‘male’ or femella ‘female’ to the invariable noun, for example, un lloro mascle ‘a male parrot’, un lloro femella ‘a female parrot’, una rata mascle ‘a male rat’, una rata femella ‘a female rat’.

  1.2 GENDER OF NOUNS REFERRING TO NON-DOMESTIC ANIMALS AND INANIMATE OBJECTS

  The grammatical gender of nouns referring to non-domestic animals and inanimate objects or concepts is largely unpredictable on semantic grounds alone. From the phonological or orthographic form, though, it is often possible to infer what the gender will be. As a broad generalization, we can say that nouns ending in unstressed -a are feminine; the rest are masculine. However, there is a significant number of exceptions, on both sides; some guidance can be given on these, in terms of form, meaning, or structure.

  1.2.1 NOUNS ENDING IN -a

  Most nouns ending in unstressed -a are feminine. As seen above, the affix -a is also the major one used to derive feminine nouns and adjectives from masculine ones. Thus:

  capsa (f.) little box França (f.) France

  història (f.) history, story Tarragona (f.) Tarragona

  cama (f.) leg

  Curiously, feminine names of towns, cities, and countries are preceded by invariant tot ‘all’, mig ‘half rather than the feminine forms tota, mitja: tot Catalunya ‘all Catalonia’, Mig Girona va quedar a les fosques ‘Half Girona was in darkness’.

  1.2.1.1 Nouns Ending in -Ma

  But many nouns ending in -ma are masculine (mostly words borrowed from Greek, often with the same or similar form in English). For example:

  drama (m.) drama

  melodrama (m.) melodrama

  Specifically, all those ending in -grama are masculine, such as:

  anagrama (m.) anagram

  diagrama (m.) diagram

  epigrama (m.) epigram

  programa (m.) programme, program

  etc.

&
nbsp; And all those ending in -orama are masculine, such as:

  panorama (m.) panorama

  etc.

  Most of those of three or more syllables ending in -ema are masculine, such as:

  cinema (m.) cinema

  dilema (m.) dilemma

  emblema (m.) emblem

  ènema (m.) enema

  esquema (m.) outline, draft

  estratagema (m.) stratagem

  poema (m.) poem

  problema (m.) problem

  etc.

  But half a dozen in -ema are feminine, of which diadema (f.) ‘diadem’ and verema (f.) ‘grape harvest’ are reasonably common.

  Those ending in -gma are mostly masculine, such as:

  diafragma (m.) diaphragm estigma (m.) stigma

  paradigma (m.) paradigm dogma (m.) dogma

  enigma (m.) enigma etc.

  but flegma ‘phlegm’ is feminine.

  Those of three or more syllables in -oma are mostly masculine, such as:

  axioma (m.) axiom idioma (m.) language

  carcinoma (m.) carcinoma símptoma (m.) symptom

  diploma (m.) diploma etc.

  But feminine are: aroma (f.) ‘aroma’, coloma (f.) ‘(female) dove’, ‘pigeon’, majordoma (f.) ‘(female) house keeper’, maroma (f.) ‘thick rope’, paloma (f.) ‘parasol mushroom’.

  Most of those ending in -sma are masculine (mostly technical), such as:

  cisma (m.) schism plasma (m.) plasma

  fantasma (m.) phantom prisma (m.) prism

  miasma (m.) miasma etc.

  But several in -sma are feminine, namely:

  asma (f.) asthma maresma (f.) salt marsh

  esma (f.) instinct morisma (f.) Moorish crowd

  desesma (f.) dismay onosma (f.) saxifrage

  cinquagesma (f.) quinquagesima xusma (f.) rabble

  quaresma (f.) Lent

  Of those ending in -auma or -euma, trauma ‘trauma’, reuma ‘rheumatism’ and a number of technical words are masculine; but catabauma ‘den’ and fleuma ‘ribbonfish’ are feminine.

  Of those ending in -erma, derma ‘corium’ and words derived from it are masculine. Esperma ‘sperm’ is feminine, as are angiosperma and centrosperma; however episperma and other compounds of -sperma are masculine.

  1.2.1.2 The Suffix -Cida

  The suffix -cida ‘-cide’ is masculine if it refers to a product. (It has regular common gender when it denotes humans, as in suïcida ‘(person who commits) suicide’):