Empires at War Read online

  Empires at War

  Other Books by the Author

  William Ellery: A Rhode Island Politico and Lord of Admiralty

  Rebels Under Sail: The American Navy in the Revolution

  The American Revolution: Changing Perspectives (coeditor)

  The Raron of Reacon Hill: A Riography of John Hancock

  Jack Tars and Commodores: The American Navy, 1783-1815

  Under Two Flags: The American Navy in the Civil War

  Silas Talbot: Captain of Old Ironsides

  Samuel Adams Radical Puritan

  America and the Sea: A Maritime History (coauthor)

  The French and Indian War

  and the Struggle for

  North America, 1754-1763

  Empires at War

  William M. Fowler Jr.

  Copyright © 2005 by William M. Fowler Jr.

  All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the Publisher.

  First published in the United States of America in 2005 by Walker Publishing Company, Inc.

  This paperback edition published by Walker in 2006

  Distributed to the trade by Holtzbrinck Publishers.

  For information about permission to reproduce selections from this book, write to Permissions, Walker & Company, 104 Fifth Avenue, New York, New York 10011.

  Art Credits:

  (neg. 604), (neg. 4482), (neg. 83497), (neg. 10597), (neg. 27665), (neg. 11235), (neg. 41109), (neg. 96944), (neg. 3916), (neg. 34215), (neg. 100619), (neg. 21457), (neg. 18752), and (neg. 5805) National Archives Canada.

  Massachusetts Historical Society. Library of Congress, Maps Division. McCord Museum of Canadian History. William L. Clements Library, University of Michigan. John Carter Brown Library, Brown University. Washington and Lee University (Washington/Custis/Lee Collection). National Portrait Gallery, London. National Maritime Museum, Greenwich.

  The Library of Congress has cataloged the hardcover edition as follows:

  Fowler, William M., 1944-

  Empires at war : the French and Indian War and the struggle for North America, 1754-1763 / William M. Fowler, Jr.

  p. cm.

  Includes bibliographical references.

  eISBN: 978-0-802-71935-5

  1. United States—History—French and Indian War, 1754-1763. I. Title.

  E199.F78 2005

  973.2'6—dc22

  2004043064

  Book design by RLF Design

  Book composition by Coghill Composition Company

  Visit Walker & Company's Web site at www.walkerbooks.com

  Printed in the United States of America by Quebecor World Fairfield

  10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2

  To my father—

  a member of the

  "Greatest Generation"

  Contents

  Acknowledgments

  Biographical Sketches

  Chronology

  Prologue

  1. Lining Up Allies

  2. George Washington Helps Start a War

  3. Braddock's March

  4. French Victory, English Defeat

  5. Montcalm and Loudoun

  6. A Failure and a "Massacre"

  7. Ticonderoga

  8. Duquesne and Louisbourg

  9. Quebec Besieged

  10. The Fall of Quebec

  11. The Year of Great Victories

  12. Pitt Departs, the War Expands

  13. The End, the Beginning

  Epilogue

  Notes

  A Note on Source

  Acknowledgments

  This book began with travel. For many years each summer I have had the opportunity to cruise the shores of eastern Canada, the Saint Lawrence River, and the Great Lakes. It has also been my pleasure in the winter season to visit often in Ottawa. Those trips sparked and then sustained my interest in our northern neighbor and particularly its early connections with New England. That relationship, of course, was often violent, as three peoples—Native Americans, French, and English—competed for land, trade, and influence along the marchlands of North America. In the summer of 1754 an incident in the valley of the Ohio River piled fuel on these smoldering embers and ignited the worlds first world war. That war is the focus of this work.

  In the course of my travels I talked with many historic-site interpreters, who cheerfully answered my questions. Many of these men and women belong to the staffs of the National Park Service and Parks Canada. Others work for sites held privately. All were invariably helpful. Until 1998 I was a member of the faculty at Northeastern University. To that institution I owe a considerable debt. My colleagues in the Department of History, as well as staff from the Snell Library and university administration, aided my work at every step and created an atmosphere in which scholarship is valued and supported. The same maybe said of the Massachusetts Historical Society, to which I moved in 1998. One of the world's great research libraries, the collections of the MHS are, according to the Harvard Guide to American History, "the most important collections of American manuscripts outside the Library of Congress." While the collections may be second to the Library of Congress, the staff of the society is second to none! Under the able direction of the librarian Peter Drummey, the staff is invariably amiable and professional. Mary Fabiszewski, the society's chief cataloger, was particularly helpful in finding scarce titles for me. Two neighbors of the society, the Boston Public Library and the Boston Athenaeum, were also gracious. I also extend my thanks to the Huntington Library, San Marino, California, for providing copies of materials from the Loudoun Papers.

  In Ottawa the staff at the Library and Archives Canada were exceedingly helpful. During my visits to the Library and Archives materials were made available in a cheerful and timely fashion. The staff, particularly those individuals in the photographic department, also responded quickly to my email and phone inquiries. The same high level of service is characteristic of the National Gallery of Canada. I am also grateful for the kind attention I received from Peter Harrington, curator of the Anne S. K. Brown Military Collection at the Brown University Library, and the staffs at the McCord Museum, Montreal, and the National Maritime Museum, Greenwich.

  During the course of my work numerous friends and colleagues were generous with their time, advice, and encouragement. Both Nicholas Westbrook and Ian McCulloch were kind enough to offer their comments. I am particularly thankful to David McCullough, who in the gentlest way often asked me, "So how's the book going? " His queries were a tonic to me. I also thank Linda Smith Rhoads, editor of the New England Quarterly, who once again took the time to read and comment. My editor, George Gibson, knew when to stay distant and when to draw close. His keen comments and insight were invaluable, and they were delivered in the most amiable fashion. I also recognize the fine reading given to the manuscript by Arthur Goldwag and the superb copyediting of Vicki Haire. Special thanks go to my dear friend Martin, who for many years offered me his hospitality during my many visits to Ottawa.

  Finally, I thank my wife, Marilyn, and our children, Alison and Nathaniel, who patiently endured my absence while writing this book.

  Biographical Sketches

  Abercromby, James (1706—81), succeeded Lord Loudoun as commander in chief in North America and was defeated at Ticonderoga (1758).

  Amherst, Jeffrey (1717—97), was third British commander in chief in North America following Edward Braddock and John Campbell (Lord Loudoun).

  Amherst, William (1782—81), the younger brother of Jeffrey Amherst, retook Newfoundland from the French in 1762.

  Anson, George (1697—17
62), was first lord of the admiralty.

  Atkins, Edmund (1697-1761), was superintendent of Indian affairs for the Southern Department.

  Attakullakulla, Little Carpenter (1705-80), was a Cherokee chief and British ally known for his skills at diplomacy.

  Barré, Isaac (1726—1802), an officer who served with Wolfe, later became an outspoken opponent of taxing America.

  Barrin, de la Galissonière, Roland-Michel, Marquis de la Galissonière (1693—1756), was governor of New France from 1746 to 1749.

  Boscawen, Edward (1711-61), was a British admiral who commanded the naval force at the siege of Louisbourg in 1758.

  Bougainville, Louis-Antoine, Comte de (1729—1811), was a French officer who served with Montcalm and later commanded an exploring expedition into the Pacific Ocean.

  Bouquet, Henry (1719-65), was a Swiss officer serving in the British army. He commanded the expedition that relieved Fort Pitt during Pontiac's rebellion.

  Bourlamaque, François-Charles de (1716-63), a French officer, accompanied Montcalm to North America and served as an engineer.

  Bradstreet, John (1714—74), was born in Nova Scotia and served in North America and captured Fort Frontenac in 1758.

  Burton, Ralph (?-1768), was an officer in the forty-eighth Regiment who arrived in America with Braddock and later served with Wolfe at Quebec.

  Byng, John (1704-57), British admiral, was executed for failing to relieve the island of Minorca.

  Campbell, John, Earl of Loudoun (1705-82), succeeded Edward Braddock as commander in chief in North America.

  Céloron de Blainville, Pierre-Joseph (1693-1759), an officer in the Troupes de la Marine, was born in Montreal. He commanded the force sent into the Ohio Valley in 1749. His report of English incursions alarmed the French government.

  Chabert de Joncaire, Philippe-Thomas, Nitachinon (1707-66), born in Montreal, was a fur trader, translator, and officer in the Troupes de la Marine. Posted to Venango, Joncaire was responsible for maintaining relations with the Delaware and Shawnee.

  Charles III (1716—88), succeeded his brother Ferdinand VI as king of Spain. His foreign policy resulted in Spain's entry into the war with disastrous results.

  Chartier de Lotbinière, Michel, Marquis de Lotbinière (1728—98), was a military engineer and officer in the Troupes de la Marine. He was born in Quebec City and worked on the fortifications at Quebec and Fort Ticonderoga.

  Chaussegros, de Léry, Gaspard-Joseph (1721-97), born in Quebec City, was an engineer in the Troupes de la Marine. He commanded the attack against Fort Bull on March 27, 1756.

  Choiseuil, Etiènne François, due de (1719-85), was the Minister of Foreign Affairs under Louis XV. He negotiated the Treaty of Paris in 1763.

  Clive, Robert (1725-74), was the British governor of Bengal and the victor at the battle of Plassey (1757).

  Cook, James (1728-79), master navigator, guided Saunders's fleet up the Saint Lawrence and later explored the Pacific.

  Coulon de Villiers de Jumonville, Joseph (1718-54), was born in Vercheres, Quebec. An officer in the Troupes de la Marine, he was killed in an engagement with Washington on May 28, 1754, at the place now known as Jumonville Glen.

  Coulon de Villiers, Louis (1710—57), born in Vercheres, Quebec, was an officer in the Troupes de la Marine. He commanded the force that defeated Washington at Fort Necessity. His brother was among those killed at Jumonville Glen.

  Croghan, George (?—1782), was a land speculator, fur trader, and a close associate of William Johnson.

  D'Arcy, Robert, Earl of Holderness (1718-78), served as secretary of the Southern Department, the office that oversaw colonial affairs.

  Dekanahwideh (pre-European contact period), was the legendary founder of the Iroquois Confederation. Born near the Bay of Quinte, he carried a message of peace to the warring Iroquois.

  DeLancey, James (1703—60), was lieutenant governor of New York. After the death of the royal governor he served as the chief officer of the colony from 1754 to 1760.

  Dieskau, Jean-Armand, Baron de (1701-67), commander of the French regulars, was defeated and captured at the battle of Lake George (1755).

  Dinwiddie, Robert (1692—1770), was the lieutenant governor of Virginia who sent Washington on his missions to the West.

  Duquesne, De Menneville, Ange, Marquis Duquesne (1700—78), was a naval officer and governor of New France. He ordered the establishment of a fort at the forks of the Ohio River.

  Elizabeth II (1709—62), was Empress of Russia and an ally of Austria and France against Frederick the Great. Her death resulted in Russia's temporary withdrawal from the war.

  Ferdinand VI (1713—59), was king of Spain. During his reign he resisted joining the French in the war.

  Ferdinand, Duke of Prussia (1721—92), was the Prussian general who commanded the allied armies in western Germany.

  Forbes, John (1707—59), was the British general who led the expedition that captured Fort Duquesne in 1758.

  Fox, Henry (1705—74), was a political leader in the House of Commons. He was often in opposition to William Pitt.

  Gage, Thomas (1721-87), an officer in the Forty-Fourth Regiment, arrived with Braddock and remained in America for the entire war.

  Gist, Christopher (1706-59), was a land surveyor and speculator. He was involved with the Ohio Company and accompanied Washington on his trip west in 1753.

  Glen, James (1701—77), was the royal governor of South Carolina. He established posts within Cherokee country.

  Grenville, George (1712—70), a leader in the House of Commons, was among those to propose raising revenue in the American colonies.

  Hawke, Edward (1705—81), was the British admiral who defeated the French at the battle of Quiberon Bay (1759).

  Hay, Charles Lord (?—1760), was an officer who served under Loudoun while planning the attack against Louisbourg in 1757. Alleged to be "mad" he was arrested and returned to England for a court martial.

  Hiawatha (pre-European contact period) was, according to legend, a disciple of Dekanahwideh and journeyed with him to the Iroquois country to preach peace.

  Holbourne, Francis (1704—71), was the British admiral who commanded the fleet in the unexecuted attack on Louisbourg in 1757.

  Holmes, Charles (1711—61), was a British admiral who served under Saunders and Wolfe at Quebec.

  Howe, George Augustus, third Viscount Howe (1725—58), was the oldest of the three Howe brothers. He was killed at Ticonderoga.

  Howe, Richard, Earl Howe (1726—99), was the royal naval officer who fired on the French ship Alcide before an official declaration of war. He later rose to the rank of admiral and commanded naval forces during the American Revolution.

  Howe, William, Viscount Howe (1729—1814), was the younger brother of Richard Howe. He was with Wolfe at Louisbourg and Quebec. He later commanded British forces in the American Revolution.

  Hutchinson, Thomas (1711—80), was lieutenant governor of Massachusetts and one of the authors of the Albany Plan of Union.

  Johnson, William (1715-74), was Superintendent for Indian Affairs in the Northern Department.

  Kaunitz, Count Wenzel von (1711-94), was one of the most able diplomats of eighteenth-century Europe. He served as foreign minister for Empress Maria Theresa of Austria.

  Keppel, Augustus, Viscount Keppel (1725-86), was the British admiral who commanded the expedition against Havana in 1761.

  Keppel, George, third Earl of Albemarie (1724—72), was the brother of Augustus Keppel and commander of land forces during the Havana expedition.

  Legardeur de Saint-Pierre, Jacques, 1701—55, was born in Montreal and was an officer in the Troupes de la Marine. He was commandant at Fort de la Riviere au Boeuf when George Washington visited in 1753.

  Le Loutre, Jean Louis (1709—72), a priest and missionary, urged Acadians and Indians in Nova Scotia to harass the British.

  Le Marchand de Lignery, François-Marie (1708—59), was born in Montreal and was an officer in the Troupes de la Marin
e. Lignery commanded Fort Duquesne during Forbes's advance.

  Le Moyne de Longueuil, Charles, Baron de Longueuil (1687—1755), was born at Longueuil. He was an officer in the Troupes de la Marine and governor of Montreal. In 1752 he served briefly as governor of New France following the death of governor Jonquiere.

  Lienard de Beaujeu, Daniel-Hyancinthe-Marie (1711—55), born in Montreal, was an officer in the Troupes de la Marine. He commanded the force sent to attack Braddock and was killed at the opening of the battle Julyg, 1755.

  Ligonier, John (1680—1770), a British general, succeeded the Duke of Cumberland as commander in chief.

  Lyttleton, William Henry (1724—1808), succeeded James Glen as governor of South Carolina in 1755.

  Maria Theresa, Empress of Austria (1717—80), was an ally of France against Prussia and England. Her daughter Marie Antoinette married the future king of France Louis XVI.

  Marin de La Malgue (La Marque), Paul (1692—1753), born in Montreal, was an officer in the Troupes de la Marine. In 1753 he commanded a large force sent into the Ohio Valley to establish a series of forts.

  Mauduit, Israel (1708—87), wrote the influential pamphlet Considerations on the Present German War (1760).

  Memeskia, also known as Old Briton and La Demoiselle (1695-1752), was a Miami chief who defied the French when they demanded that he cease trading with the English. Subsequently, the French attacked his village, Pickawillany (Piqua, Ohio), on June 21, 175?, killing him and many others.

  Moore, John (1718—79), was the royal naval officer who commanded the fleet supporting the capture of Guadeloupe in 1759.