U.S. Army Special Forces Handbook Read online

  Maintain surveillance of the site prior to and following the reception operation.

  Recover and dispose of incoming personnel and/or cargo.

  Provide for dispatch of personnel and/or cargo in evacuation operations.

  Provide for sterilization of the site (when secrecy is possible and desirable only).

  c. Composition. The reception committee is normally organized into five parties. The composition and functions of the five parties are as follows: Command party. Controls and coordinates the actions of all reception committee components.

  Includes the reception committee leader (RCL) and communications personnel, consisting of messengers and radio operators.

  Provides medical support, to include litter bearers, during personnel drops.

  Marking party. Operates the reception site marking system, using one man for each marker.

  The marking party must be well rehearsed. Improperly placed or improperly operated markings may cause an aborting of the mission.

  Security party. Insures that unfriendly elements do not interfere with the conduct of the operation.

  Consists normally of inner and outer security elements. The inner security element is positioned in the Immediate vicinity of the site and is prepared to fight delaying or holding actions.

  The outer security element consists of outposts established along approaches to the area. They may prepare ambushes and road blocks to prevent enemy movement toward the site.

  The security party may be supplemented by auxiliaries. These are generally used to maintain surveillance of enemy activities and keep the security party informed of hostile movements.

  Provides march security for moves between the reception site and the destination of the cargo or infiltrated personnel.

  Recovery party. Recovers cargo and aerial delivery equipment from the DZ. Unloads aircraft or landing craft.

  For aerial delivery operations the recovery party should consist of at least one man for each parachutist or cargo container. For such operations, the recovery party is usually dispersed along the length of the anticipated Impact area. The members spot each parachute as it descends and move to the landing point. They then recover all parachute equipment and cargo, moving to a predetermined assembly area with the infiltrated personnel or equipment.

  The recovery party is normally responsible for sterilizing the reception site to insure that all traces of the operation are removed when secrecy is possible and desired.

  Transport party. Moves items received to distribution points or caches.

  May consist of part, or all, of the members comprising the command, marking, and recovery parties.

  Uses available means of transportation such as pack animals and wagons.

  VI. LANDING ZONES (LAND)

  General. The same general considerations applicable to DZ selections apply to the selection of LZs. However, site size, approach features and security are far more important.

  Selection Criteria. Desirable terrain features: LZs should be located in flat or rolling terrain.

  Figure 11. Organization of DZ Reception.

  Level plateaus of sufficient size can be used. Due to decreased air density, landings at higher elevations require Increased minimum LZ dimensions. If the LZ is located in terrain above 4,000 feet (1,220 meters) and/or areas with a very high temperature the minimum lengths should be increased as follows: Add 10 percent to minimums for each 1,000 feet (305 meters).

  Add 10 percent to minimum for the altitude for temperatures over 90°F. Add 20 percent for temperatures over 100°F. (38°C).

  Pockets or small valleys completely surrounded by hills are usually unsuitable for landing operations by fixed-wing aircraft.

  Although undesirable, sites with only a single approach can be used. It is mandatory when using such sites that: All takeoffs and landings are made upwind.

  There is sufficient clearance at either end of the LZ to permit a level 180° turn to either side within a radius of 3 miles (5 kilometers) for medium aircraft (1 mile for light aircraft).

  Weather. Prevailing weather in the landing area should be favorable. In particular, there must be a determination of wind direction and velocity, and of conditions restricting visibility such as ground fog, haze, or low-hanging cloud formations.

  Size. The required size of LZs varies according to the aircraft used. Safe operations require the following minimum dimensions (Figures 12 and 13). Medium aircraft. 3,000 feet (920 meters) in length and 100 feet (30 meters) in width (150 feet or 45 meters at night).

  Light aircraft. 1,000 feet (305 meters) in length and 40 feet (15 meters) in width (150 feet or 45 meters at night).

  In addition to the basic runway dimensions, and to provide a safety factor, these extra clearances are required. A cleared surface capable of supporting the aircraft, extending from each end of the runway, and equal to 10 percent of the runway length.

  A 50-foot (15 meter) strip extending along both sides of the runway and cleared to within three feet of the ground.

  Figure 12. Landing zone (land) medium aircraft (night operations).

  Surface. The surface of the LZ must be level and free of obstructions such as ditches, deep ruts, logs, fences, hedges, low shrubbery, rocks larger than a man’s fist or grass over 1 1/2 feet in height.

  The sub-soil must be firm to a depth of 2 feet.

  A surface-containing gravel and small stones, or thin layers of loose sand over a firm layer of sub-soil is acceptable. Plowed fields or fields containing crops over 1 1/2 feet in height should not be used.

  Figure 13. Landing zone (land) light aircraft (night operations).

  As with DZs surfaces that are not desirable in summer may be ideal In winter. Ice with a thickness of 2 feet (61 centimeters) will support a medium aircraft. Unless the aircraft is equipped for snow landing, snow in excess of 4 inches (11 centimeters) must be packed or removed from the landing strip.

  The surface gradient of the LZ should not exceed 2 percent.

  Approach and takeoff clearance. The approach and takeoff clearances are based on the glide-climb characteristics of the aircraft. For medium aircraft the glide-climb ration is 1 to 40; that is, 1 foot of gain or loss of altitude for every 40 feet of horizontal distance traveled. The ration for light aircraft is 1 to 20. As a further precaution, any obstructions in approach and departure lanes must conform to the following specifications (Figure 14). An obstruction higher than 6 feet (2 meters) is not permissible at or near either end of the LZ.

  A 50-foot (15 meters) obstruction may not be nearer than 2,000 feet (610 meters) for medium aircraft, or 1,000 feet (305 meters) for light aircraft.

  A 500-foot (155 meter) obstruction may not be nearer than 4 miles (617 kilometers) for medium aircraft or 2 miles (305 meters) for light aircraft.

  Hills of 1,000 (305 meters) feet or more above LZ altitude may not be nearer than 8 miles (13 kilometers) from the landing sons for medium aircraft.

  The heights of the obstacles are computed from the level of the landing strip. Where land falls away from the LZ, objects of considerable height may be ignored provided they do not cut the line of ascent or descent. This condition exists more often in mountainous terrain where plateaus are selected for LZs.

  Markings. For night operations lights are used for marking LZs; during day-light, panels are used. When flashlights are used, they should be hand-held for directional control and guidance.

  The pattern outlining the limits of the runway consists of five or seven marker stations (Figures 11 and 12). Stations “A” and “B” mark the downwind end of the LZ and are positioned to provide for the safety factors previously mentioned. These stations represent the initial point at which the aircraft should touch the ground. Station “C”

  Figure 14.

  indicates the very last point at which the aircraft can touch down and complete a safe landing.

  A signal station manned by the RCL (a member of the operational detachment) is incorporated into light station “B” at the approach on downwind end of the LZ (Figures 11 and 12). For night operations, (the signal light operations,) a distinctive panel or colored smoke, located approximately 15 meters to the left of station “B” (RCL), is used for recognition.

  Conduct of Operations. The LZ markings are normally displayed 2 minutes before the arrival time indicated in the mission confirmation message. The markings remain displayed for a period of 4 minutes or until the aircraft completes landing roll after touchdown.

  Identification is accomplished by: The aircraft arriving at the proper time on prearranged track.

  The reception committee leader flashing or displaying the proper code signal.

  Landing direction is indicated by: The RCL signal control light (station “B”) and marker “A” which are always on the approach or downwind end of the runway.

  The row of markers which are always on the left side of the landing aircraft.

  The pilot usually attempts to land straight-in on the initial approach. When this is not possible, a modified landing pattern is flown using a minimum of altitude for security reasons. Two minutes before target time the RCL causes all lights of the LZ pattern to be turned on and aimed like a pistol in the direction of the aircraft’s approach track. The RCL (station “B”) also flashes the code of the day continuously with the green control light in the direction of expected aircraft approach. Upon arrival in the area (within 15° to either side of the approach track and below 1,500 feet (460 meters)), the LZ marking personnel follow the aircraft with all lights when it arrives in the area. When the RCL determines that the aircraft is on its final approach, he will cease flashing the code of the day and aim a solid light in the direction of the landing aircraft. The solid light provides a more positive pattern perspective for the pilot during lan
ding. If a “go around” is required, all lights follow the aircraft until it is on the ground. All lights continue to follow the aircraft during touchdown and until it passes each respective light station.

  Landings are not normally made under the following conditions: Lack of or improper identification received from the LZ.

  An abort signal given by the RCL, e.g., causing the LZ lights to be extinguished.

  Any existing condition that, in the opinion of the pilot, makes it unsafe to land.

  After the aircraft passes the RCL position at touchdown and completes its landing roll and a right turn, the RCL takes a position midway between stations “A” and “B” and shines a solid light in the direction of the taxiing aircraft. This is the guide light for the pilot who will taxi the aircraft back to take-off position. The RCL controls the aircraft with his light. If the RCL desires the aircraft to continue to taxi, he will flash a solid light in the direction of the aircraft. After off-loading and/or on-loading is complete and the aircraft is ready for takeoff, the RCL moves to a vantage point forward and to the left of the pilot, causes the LZ lights to be illuminated, and flashes his light toward the nose of the aircraft as the signal for takeoff. The RCL exercises caution so that his light does not blind the pilot.

  To eliminate confusion and insure expeditious handling, personnel and/or cargo to be evacuated wait for unloading of incoming personnel and/or cargo.

  When all evacuating personnel are loaded and members of the reception committee are clear of the aircraft, the pilot is given a go signal by the RCL. LZ markings are removed as soon as the aircraft is airborne.

  VII. REPORTING LANDING ZONES.

  The minimum LZ data required is:

  Code Name. Extracted from SOI.

  Location. Complete military grid coordinates of center of LZ.

  Long Axis. Magnetic azimuth of long axis of runway. It also indicates probable direction of landing approach based on prevailing winds.

  Description. Type of surface, length, and width of runway.

  Open Quadrant. Measured from center of LZ and reported as series of magnetic azimuths. Open Quadrant indicates acceptable aircraft approaches.

  Track. Magnetic azimuth of desired aircraft approach.

  Obstacles. Reported by description, magnetic azimuth, and distance from center of LZ.

  Reference Point. Reported same as obstacles.

  Date. Time mission requested.

  Items Requested. Items to be evacuated.

  VIII. LANDING ZONES FOR ROTARY-WING AIRCRAFT:

  General. Within their range limitations, helicopters provide an excellent means of evacuation. Their advantages include the ability to: Ascend and descend almost vertically.

  Land on relatively small plots of ground.

  Hover nearly motionless, and take on or discharge personnel and cargo without landing.

  Fly safely and efficiently at low altitudes.

  Some unfavorable characteristics of helicopters are: They compromise secrecy by engine and rotor noise and by dust.

  The difficulty—sometimes impossibility—of operating when icing and/or high, gusty winds prevail.

  Figure 15. Landing Zone for Rotary-Wing Aircraft.

  The reduction of lifting ability during changes of atmospheric conditions.

  For the maximum effective use of helicopters, LZs should be located to have landings and takeoffs into the wind.

  During night operations, helicopters usually must land to transfer personnel and/or cargo.

  A decrease in normal air density limits the helicopter payload and requires lengthened running distances for landing and takeoff. Air density is largely determined by altitude and temperature. Low altitudes and moderate to low temperatures result in increased air density.

  Figure 16. Example of platform landing zones for rotary-wing aircraft.

  Size. Under ideal conditions, and provided the necessary clearance for the rotors exists, a helicopter can land on a plot of ground slightly larger than the spread of its landing gear. For night operations, however, a safety factor is allowed with the following criteria as a guide: An area of 50 meters in diameter cleared to the ground.

  An area beyond this, surrounding the cleared area, 20 meters wide and cleared to within 3 feet of the ground.

  The completed LZ is thus a minimum of 90 meters in diameter (Figure 15).

  Surface. The surface should be relatively level and free of obstructions such as rocks, logs, tall grass, ditches, and fences.

  The maximum ground slope permitted is 15 percent.

  The ground must be firm enough to support the aircraft.

  Figure 17.

  Heavy dust or loose snow conditions interfere with the vision of the pilot Just before touchdown. This effect can be reduced by clearing, wetting down, or using improvised mats.

  Landing pads may be prepared on swamp or marsh areas by building platforms of locally available materials (Figure 16). Such LZs are normally used for daylight operations only. The size of the clearing for this type of LZ is the same as b above, with the following additional requirements for the platform:

  IX. LANDING ZONES (WATER)

  a. Criteria for selection of water LZs: Size. For medium amphibious or seaplane-type aircraft, the required length is 4,000 feet (1,220 meters) with a minimum width of 1,500 feet (460 meters). For light aircraft, the required length is 2,000 feet (615 meters) long and 500 feet (155 meters) wide. As with land LZs, and additional safe area equal to 10 percent of the airstrip length is required on each end. (Figure 18.)

  Surface. Minimum water depth is 6 feet (2 meters). The entire landing zone must be free of obstructions such as boulders, rock ledges, shoals, waterlogged boats, or sunken pilings within 6 feet of the surface, and the surface must be cleared of all floating objects such as logs, debris, or moored craft.

  Wind. Wind velocity must not exceed 20 knots for sheltered water or 10 knots in semi-sheltered water.

  In a wind of 8 knots or less, the landing heading may vary up to 15 degrees from the wind direction. Where the surface winds exceed 8 knots the aircraft must land into the wind. No landing may be made in winds in excess of 20 knots. If a downwind landing or takeoff is absolutely required, this is made directly downwind.

  Surface swells must not exceed 1 foot in height and the windwave not more than 3 feet. The combination of swell and windwave must not exceed 3 feet in height when all swells and windwaves are in phase.

  Tide. The state of the tide should have no bearing on the suitability of the landing area.

  Water/air temperature. Due to the danger of icing, water and air temperatures must conform to the following minimums: Water temperature Air temperature

  Salt water −18°F. (−8°C.) −26°F. (−3°C.)

  Fresh water −35°F. (−2°C.) −35°F. (−2°C.)

  Brackish water −30°F. (−1°C.) −35°F. (−2°C.)

  Figure 18. Landing Zone (water) medium aircraft (night operations).

  Approach and takeoff clearances. Water landing zones require approach/takeoff clearances identical to those of land LZs and are based on the same glide/climb ratios.

  c. Marking and identification of water landing zones. Depending upon visibility, lights or panels may be used to mark water LZs.

  The normal method of marking water LZs is to align three marker stations along the left edge of the landing strip. Station “A” is positioned at the downwind end of the strip and indicates the desired touchdown point. Station “B” marks the last point at which the aircraft can touch down and complete a safe landing. Station “B” is also the location of the RCL and the pickup point. Station “C” marks the upwind extreme of the landing area. At night, stations “A,” “B,” and “C” are marked by white lights. The RCL signal light is green.