Canterbury Tales (Barron's Book Notes) Read online

  BARRON'S BOOK NOTES

  GEOFFREY CHAUCER'S

  CANTERBURY TALES

  ^^^^^^^^^^GEOFFREY CHAUCER: THE AUTHOR AND HIS TIMES

  Most people in the English society of Chaucer's time, about 600 years ago, viewed the world in a similar way and accepted the same beliefs. People then believed that behind the chaos and frustration of the day-to-day world there was a divine providence that gave a reason to everything, even though that reason wasn't always obvious. When you've got faith in an overall system like that, it's easier to accept and understand the world around you. People in Chaucer's society could feel, at least much of the time, a sense of security about the world, knowing that it was following a divine plan. They trusted the system they believed in; it was true, and they felt no need to question it.

  So behind all of Chaucer's satire and social put-downs in the Canterbury Tales is an unshaken belief in a divine order. It's easier to make fun of something when, underneath, you know you take it seriously. Also, as Chaucer knew, it's easier to write for a group of people who at least roughly share the same set of values, whether they be a cook, a parson, or an upper-class prioress.

  Those values were represented in the medieval world by two structures: the class system and the church. People believed both setups were established by God, and each went unchallenged. A peasant, like Chaucer's Plowman, wasn't "upwardly mobile" as in our society, and didn't aspire to become a knight. He may want to buy more horses or farm more land, but he wouldn't change his basic lifestyle or his station in life.

  In the Middle Ages, each person was classified according to his or her "estate" or place on the social scale depending on birth, profession, and other factors (such as whether a woman was married--an important discussion of which is in the Wife of Bath's Tale as well as others). Each social grouping was like a symbol of the divine order, as immune to change as the hierarchy of angels. That's why a move from the peasant to the middle class, for example, was almost unheard of.

  The middle class was in its infancy then. Chaucer himself was a member of what we'd call the upper middle class; he got jobs at court without actually being royalty. He started out as a page, serving meals and learning the ropes of becoming a courtly gentleman. He also quickly found out about the conflicting whims of human nature and the importance of the right appearances, both lessons he draws on in the Canterbury Tales. He evidently learned them well in real life, too, because he became a diplomat and traveled for the king to France and Italy, where he picked up plenty of literary influences that show up in the Canterbury Tales and other works.

  Chaucer uses class structure very clearly in the Tales, presenting the Knight first and having him tell the first tale because he's the highest-ranking pilgrim present. The nobility, being at the top of the social scale, was responsible for cultivating virtue, keeping the peace by maintaining social order, and setting a moral example for the other classes to follow.

  Apart from the worldly order but just as important was the church hierarchy. It, too, was a structure ordained by God (especially since everyone in the church was Roman Catholic in the hundreds of years before Martin Luther and the Reformation). Yet within the church ranks there was incredible in-fighting between the "regular" clergy (those in convents and monasteries, like the Monk, Prioress, and Friar in the Tales) and the "secular" clergy (parish priests like the Parson and eventually perhaps the Clerk). Each section was, in a sense, feuding with the other for "turf." Chaucer exemplifies this by showing an argument between the Pardoner (a church official of the secular variety) and the Friar, who is in direct competition with the Pardoner for money and religious influence over the parish villages they both travel through.

  The regular clergy, in particular, had a reputation for corruption at that time. Monasteries, which were supposed to be apart from the world and whose inhabitants were to avoid worldly goods, were almost as lavish as castles by the 14th century, and most people assumed that friars (like Chaucer's picture of one) kept much of the money they were supposed to give to the poor. At one point in his life Chaucer lived in a part of London that was very near several large monastic orders, and he probably got to see a good deal of their life and work. He also, as we can see from his portraits, had little sympathy for cheating clerics. In fact, he was once fined for beating up a friar outside a courthouse!

  Yet people still gave money to friars and pardoners because you could never be too sure. Even if the friar or pardoner were corrupt, giving to charity or buying a papal pardon could still help get you into heaven or at least knock a few thousand years off your stay in purgatory. Also, just because a friar or monk was a less-than-sterling example of his station, the social position itself still commanded respect.

  What about the importance of pilgrimages, which certainly are important in Chaucer's Tales? You must realize, first of all, that pilgrims were ordinary people, not even necessarily very religious (as you can see from the Prologue), who visited religious shrines as much for a holiday as for the heavenly benefits. Such trips even took on the qualities of holidays at the shrines, with people like Chaucer's Pardoner selling holy "relics", and souvenir stands set up along the route. For some people, like the Wife of Bath, it was the only way to escape the pressures of home, especially for a woman. (We suspect that the Wife may be along for other reasons as well.) Spring was a particularly popular pilgrimage time in England, and Chaucer duly begins this report of a pilgrimage with a description of the spring.

  It's also not unusual to have a large, oddly assorted mixture of people heading out on a pilgrimage together, sort of a medieval tour bus. Travel was slow, roads were rutted, and there were highway robbers, accidents, and illness. Then, as now, there's company and comfort in .......numbers, so why travel alone when you could travel with others, especially if they told such entertaining stories? Because of the festive atmosphere of many pilgrimages, some clerics frowned on them, but neither Chaucer nor his pilgrims cares about such matters.

  By using the format of a pilgrimage, however, Chaucer reminds us that behind all the jokes are the serious truths that he and his pilgrims believed in. Amid the clamor of different characters and different points of view, he's reminding us that earthly truth has as many aspects as there are pilgrims, and that the pilgrims are trying to find a single truth that is impossible for mortals to find. It doesn't matter that the tales are chaotic and unfinished; what matters is that God's truth existed for Chaucer beyond the chaos of everyday lives and explanations.

  ^^^^^^^^^^CANTERBURY TALES: A NOTE ON THIS GUIDE

  Although Chaucer did not complete the Canterbury Tales, he managed to write 24 of them, plus the General Prologue and a Retraction. Not every character mentioned in the Prologue has a tale, and no character gets to tell the two tales that Chaucer intended each to deliver. Even so, most editions of the Canterbury Tales that you'll come across include a limited number of the 24 tales.

  This guide presents and analyzes in depth the five tales most often read, plus the General Prologue. These are the five you are most likely to be reading and studying. They are representative of Chaucer's varied styles. The Knight's Tale is often considered to be Chaucer's best romance; the Miller's Tale, his funniest; the Wife of Bath's Prologue and Tale, his best-drawn characterization; the Pardoner's Tale, an excellent allegory and study in contrast between pilgrim and tale; and the Nun's Priest's Tale, a clear philosophical statement and a wonderfully charming mock-heroic fable. As for the General Prologue, most students know that it's essential reading as an introduction to the Canterbury Tales.

  The other tales--though not treated here in depth, and not read as often in t
he classroom--certainly have their merits.

  These other tales are presented in summary, following the in-depth presentations, and for each, special elements are highlighted that deserve consideration when you read the stories.

  ^^^^^^^^^^CANTERBURY TALES: THE POEM

  The old saying goes, "In spring a young man's fancy turns to thoughts of love." For Chaucer, who opens the General Prologue to the Canterbury Tales with a wonderful description of spring, this was the time when people longed "to go on pilgrimages."

  On that sunny April day, "Chaucer" (coincidentally the name Chaucer chose for his narrator) happens to be at the Tabard Inn in Southwark, just south of London. He's going on his own pilgrimage to the cathedral at Canterbury where St. Thomas a Becket preached and was murdered. By chance, 29 other pilgrims come trooping into the tavern, also headed for Canterbury. Chaucer chats with all of them, becomes part of their group, and decides to leave with them early the next morning. Chaucer then tells us all about the group he's joined: who they are, what their station in life is, even what they're wearing. He proceeds to give us detailed descriptions of almost all of them, starting with the Knight, the highest-ranking member of the group.

  The Host then feeds the pilgrims plenty of food and wine, and takes the floor. He knows that the holiday mood of a pilgrimage means people will laugh and joke along the way. He has a plan; how many people will agree to it? They cheerfully agree, and the Host proposes that each pilgrim should tell two tales on the way to Canterbury and two more on the way back. Whoever tells the best tale--the most morally instructive as well as the most amusing (see Note)--gets treated to dinner by the rest of the gang on the return trip (at the Host's inn, of course).

  Early next morning, the group heads out and the Host has everyone draw straws to see who will tell the first tale. The Knight picks the shortest straw, and the Prologue ends as the Knight prepares to speak.

  NOTE: The scheme of two stories out, two back was never completed by Chaucer. Instruction plus amusement were the criteria by which good stories were judged in Chaucer's day. Originality was not important, but embellishment, and how well a story was adapted, were highly valued.

  It is fitting that the Knight, "by cas" (by chance) picks to go first, as he is the highest in the social hierarchy on the trip. Chaucer is saying the choice seems random, but is not. This idea resurfaces throughout the Tales.

  ^^^^^^^^^^CANTERBURY TALES: THE PILGRIMS

  The major characters in the General Prologue are the very people who soon will be telling their stories with other characters in them. So keep in mind that Chaucer's description of each character tells us something about the character's personality, but that we'll also learn something more about the character based on the story he or she tells. (After our picture of the Miller, for example, we're not surprised that he tells a dirty story.) We get further hints from the prologues to each person's story.

  Chaucer tells us much about each pilgrim, not only by telling us what they do for a living, but also through description of their clothes, attitudes, even their bodies. His medieval audience would compare Chaucer's descriptions against the social stereotypes they knew already about each person's profession or "station." Chaucer's list of attributes often parodies the standards set for a given rank, turning some descriptions into great comedy.

  ^^^^^^^^^^CANTERBURY TALES: THE KNIGHT

  The Knight is everything an archetypal medieval knight should be: "worthy" (distinguished), and loving chivalry, truth, honor, "freedom" (selflessness), and courtesy. There's no irony here. He is "ever honored" for his bravery. He's quite literally been through the wars; his tunic is still stained by his chain-mail armor because he's heading on his pilgrimage straight from his latest Crusade. He's "gentil" (well bred), "verray" (true), in short, "parfit" (perfect). Chaucer uses all the conventional descriptions because the Knight is what every knight should be, but usually isn't.

  We hear more about the Knight's 15 "mortal battles" than about his appearance, since his actions are more important than his looks. (All we know besides his tunic is that he is not gaudily dressed and has "good" horses.) His actions are more important to his audience (who, like us, are excited by news of foreign wars and travel) and also to his own code of knightly behavior. Keep this in mind during his Tale, which deals with two other worthy knights whose behavior dictates who will win or lose the lady they both love.

  ^^^^^^^^^^CANTERBURY TALES: THE SQUIRE

  The Squire is a young man of about 20, not yet as mature as his father. He is a "lover" and "lusty bachelor," which meant a young man aspiring to knighthood. His hair is curled as though it had been set--telling us he is more concerned than his father about appearances--and he places importance on fighting for his lady's honor, not, like his father, for abstract ideals or God. Squires were apprenticed to knights before they could become knights (even King Arthur was one), which is why this Squire is "courteous, humble," and carves meat at his father's table. He can sing and dance, joust, and write songs and poems--all important social accomplishments for a young man of his rank. He wears stylish but daring clothing--a short gown (equivalent in shock value to a mini-skirt)--which would not be viewed kindly by priests warning against stylish clothing.

  It's been said that Chaucer didn't like the Squire because of the young man's emphasis on vanity and pretty things, but the description, even the curls, is the standard romance convention for young heroes. (Don't forget, the Squire also is very agile and "of great strength.") And the last couplet tells that he's courteous and well bred. True to his nature, his tale tells of Gawain, a knight of King Arthur's court, and the magical gifts he bestows in a foreign land. The tale may have gone on to speak of the Squire's other main interest, love, but we'll never know because Chaucer left it unfinished. (He does mention the love of a falcon for her lost mate, though.) We get another view of the Squire's good breeding in a compliment from the Franklin, who wishes his own son were more Squire-like.

  NOTE: The Squire is intentionally compared to the description of spring at the beginning of the Prologue. His clothes are embroidered like a meadow, "al ful of fresshe floures, whyte and rede," and he is "fresh as is the month of May." Like the birds sleeping with open eyes, he sleeps "namore than dooth a nightingale" because of his high spirits and energy. He is of nature, rather than of the "higher" orders of reason and thought like the Knight, but there's hope. After all, he's still young.

  ^^^^^^^^^^CANTERBURY TALES: THE YEOMAN

  The Knight's servant (or assistant) is dressed in green, has bright peacock-feather arrows in his belt, and a "mighty bow" in his hand, so Chaucer guesses he's a forester and hunter when not attending the Knight. He also wears a medal of St. Christopher, patron saint of foresters, around his neck. He's obviously proud of his abilities since he takes care not to let his arrow feathers droop.

  ^^^^^^^^^^CANTERBURY TALES: THE PRIORESS

  Some believe the Prioress is a woman on whom Chaucer (or at least the narrator) had a crush. It certainly seems so from the description of her, which is more fitting to a beloved lady in a romance than to a nun. The description makes it seem that she's a gentlewoman, who possibly entered a convent because she had no marriage dowry. Her smile is "simple and coy" (modest and sweet), words that come straight out of a romance, as Chaucer's audience would instantly recognize. She doesn't curse (or at least, only slightly, by "St. Loy," who happens to have been a handsome courtier before he turned to religion). Even her name, "Madame Eglentyne," meaning "sweet briar," is a demure one that appears in several popular romances. Again, Chaucer refers to a beautiful worldly heroine, implying behavior that is far from nunlike. But is she evil, just because she speaks French very well, has perfect table manners, and likes being proper? She is "so charitable" that she would weep "if she saw a mouse caught in a trap." Some think this implies that she cares more about animals' suffering than people, especially in the fight of the tale she calmly tells about the way the Jews are punished for supposedly killing a Christian child. S
he also keeps small dogs as pets (strictly forbidden in a convent) and feeds them the finest meat, milk, and bread.

  NOTE: Notice how here and elsewhere Chaucer shifts from describing the person to being inside his or her head. He hasn't seen Madame Eglentyne cry over a mouse, or feed her dogs, yet he describes exactly how she does it.

  The description of her table manners comes straight from the French Romance of the Rose, which Chaucer translated and which his audience would have known. The joke here is that in the romance this description is from a scene on how women attract and keep lovers! In fact, it is ironic that the Prioress is along on a pilgrimage, since she should have remained inside the cloister walls.

  Her physical description, too, comes straight from French romances. Chaucer uses every cliche in the book: her nose is "tretys" (shapely), her eyes "grey as glass," her mouth "small, soft and red." Her forehead, which technically shouldn't even be visible in a nun's habit, is fair and broad, a style so fashionable that women in Chaucer's day used to pluck their hairlines to make their foreheads larger. Perhaps most intriguing of all, she wears a large gold brooch (jewelry is forbidden in convents) that reads, Amor vincit omnia ("love conquers all"). It's not clear how Chaucer means us to interpret the phrase. The original motto (from Virgil) referred to earthly love, but it was used by the medieval church to mean God's love. How does the Prioress interpret it? It's possible that she would think only of the godly connotations, but some readers believe the double meaning is no accident. The Prioress retains some vanities of her preconvent days, but does Chaucer intend to show her as a hypocrite? Or, because of her lack of charity, as intentionally cruel? Certainly she is not everything a nun should be--compare her in idealism to the Knight--but you can also find a great deal of affection in Chaucer's picture of her. Isn't it understandable that a well-bred young woman should want to keep some of the innocent pleasures of worldly life in a convent? Reforming bishops often warned even heads of convents against keeping pets and wearing jewelry, but the frequency of the warnings indicates they were pretty much ignored.