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  Hannibal’s Last Battle

  Zama and the Fall of Carthage

  Hannibal’s Last Battle

  Zama and the Fall of Carthage

  Brian Todd Carey

  Joshua B. Allfree

  Tactical Map Illustrator

  John Cairns

  Regional Map Illustrator

  First published in Great Britain in 2007 by

  Pen & Sword Military

  an imprint of

  Pen & Sword Books Ltd

  47 Church Street

  Barnsley

  South Yorkshire

  S70 2AS

  Copyright © Brian Todd Carey, Joshua B. Allfree and John Cairns, 2007

  ISBN: 978-1-84415-635-1

  The right of Brian Todd Carey, Joshua B. Allfree and John Cairns to be

  identified as Authors of this Work has been asserted by them in accordance

  with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

  A CIP catalogue record for this book is

  available from the British Library.

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  Typeset in ll/13pt Ehrhardt by Concept, Huddersfield

  Printed and bound in England by CPI UK

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  Contents

  Preface and Acknowledgements

  List of Maps

  Key to Maps

  List of Illustrations

  Chronology of the Punic Wars

  Introduction: Clash of Civilizations

  The Battle of Zama as Turning Point

  Phoenicia’s Heir: The Rise of Carthage

  Rome: From City-State to Master of Italy

  Chapter 1 The First Punic War (264–241 BCE)

  The Organization and Tactics of the Carthaginian Army

  The Organization and Tactics of the Roman Army

  The First Punic War: The War at Sea and On Land

  An Unequal Peace and the Mercenary War

  Chapter 2 The Early Campaigns of Hannibal

  Hannibal’s Early Life and the Origins of the Second Punic War (218–202 BCE)

  The Second Punic War: Initial Strategies

  Dangerous Journey: Hannibal Crosses the Alps

  Seizing the Initiative: Early Punic Victories at the Ticinus and the Trebia (218 BCE)

  Ambush at Lake Trasimene and Rome’s ‘Fabian’ Strategy (217 BCE)

  Cannae: Hannibal’s ‘Killing Field’ (216 BCE)

  After Cannae

  Chapter 3 The Early Campaigns of Scipio

  Scipio’s Early Life and Building a New Army

  Rome Resurgent and the Elder Scipios in Spain

  Scipio the Younger and the Capture of New Carthage

  The Roman Conquest of Spain (208–207 BCE)

  Hasdrubal Defeated: The Battle of Metaurus River (207 BCE)

  Scipio’s Masterpiece: Ilipa (206 BCE)

  Scipio Returns to Rome and Builds an Army (205-204 BCE)

  Chapter 4 The African Landings and the Battle of Zama

  The African Landings (204 BCE)

  The Battle of the Great Plains (203 BCE)

  Armistice and Hannibal Recalled

  Parley on the Plain and Locating the Battlefield

  The Battle of Zama (202 BCE)

  Scipio Africanus: ‘Greater than Hannibal’?

  The End of the Second Punic War

  Chapter 5 In Zama’s Wake: The Growth of Roman Imperialism and the Third Punic War

  Hannibal After Zama (201–183 BCE)

  Scipio After Zama (201–184 BCE)

  Rome Expands in the Mediterranean (201–149 BCE)

  The Third Punic War

  The Siege Perfected and the Fall of Carthage (147–146 BCE)

  Rome Transformed: The Legacy of the Punic Wars

  Notes

  Glossary of Important Personalities

  Glossary of Military Terms

  Glossary of Roman and Carthaginian Government Terms

  Select Bibliography

  Index

  Preface and Acknowledgements

  Few historical figures in western civilization have commanded as much attention from historians, generals and military theorists as Hannibal Barca. Born into a well-placed Carthaginian military dynasty, Hannibal and his brothers Hasdrubal and Mago, followed in their father Hamilcar’s footsteps and dedicated their lives to battling the Romans in Spain, Italy and North Africa. Hannibal’s epic journey across the Alps and numerous victories over Roman armies during the Second Punic War have been studied for millennia, while his destruction of the Roman host at Cannae in a double-envelopment has often been considered the perfect engagement. Nearly always fighting at a disadvantage in manpower and resources, Hannibal rose to the ranks of legend within his own lifetime, becoming the most feared man in the Mediterranean. It is even said his reputation was so fierce that Roman parents merely had to utter ‘Hannibal ad portas’ (‘Hannibal is at the gates’) when their children misbehaved.

  In the twentieth century more attention has been paid to the generalship and campaigns of Hannibal’s arch-enemy and eventual nemesis, Publius Cornelius Scipio ‘Africanus’. This scrutiny has given rise to a new appreciation of this Roman commander, with many historians proclaiming Scipio to be ‘greater than Hannibal’ as either tactician, strategist, or both. Like Hannibal, Scipio was from a well-established noble family, but, unlike his Punic adversary, Scipio had the advantage of fighting for a civilization with extraordinary resources and a growing desire for imperium. The struggle between these two giants of their age is emblematic of conflicts between antagonists and civilizations in any age, which is probably why historians have spent so much effort studying these two extraordinary generals.

  As the title of this study suggests, this monograph concentrates on the campaigns of Hannibal and Scipio Africanus during the Second Punic War, emphasizing the events leading up to the Battle of Zama in 202 BCE. In order to put this campaign in perspective, time is spent exploring the origins, course and outcome of the First Punic War and the events leading to the eventual destruction of Carthage in the Third Punic War. It is hoped that this work will serve as a brief introduction to the Punic wars and to the personalities and campaigns of two of military history’s most compelling figures.

  When I began research on this book, Joshua B. Allfree and John Cairns, my illustrators for Warfare in the Ancient World and Warfare in the Medieval World, came on board again and provided outstanding tactical and regional map illustrations. Their efforts give this book its uniqueness. We could not have completed this project without the collaboration and support of a few notable people. We would like to first and foremost thank Pen and Sword Books, especially our managing editor Rupert Harding. Mr Harding’s wisdom and guidance throughout the process of publishing three books in three years has proved invaluable, as has the adroit copy editing of Philip Sidnell, whose knowledge of, and passion for, ancient military history is evident in his support of this pro
ject. Without these gentlemen’s generous assistance this book would simply not have been possible. Special thanks is also extended to Dr Jon Carleton, Chair of History and Military Studies at the American Public University System, for his encouragement while writing this book. Finally, we would like to thank our family and friends whose unwavering support over the process of creating these three books has been instrumental to our success.

  Brian Todd Carey

  Loveland, Colorado

  List of Maps

  The Carthaginian Empire, circa 264 BCE

  Rome During the Middle Republic, c. 218 BCE

  Sicily and North Africa During the First Punic War

  The Battle of Mylae, 260 BCE (phases I–III)

  The Battle of Ecnomus, 256 BCE (phases I–V)

  The Battle of Tunis, 255 BCE (phases I–IV)

  The Battle of Drepana, 249 BCE (phases I–III)

  The Battle of Aegates Islands, 241 BCE (phases I–III)

  Carthaginian Possessions in Spain, 218 BCE

  Hannibal’s Route Across the Alps, 218 BCE

  The Battle of the Ticinus, 218 BCE (phases I–V)

  The Battle of the Trebia, 218 BCE (phases I–VIII)

  The Battle of Lake Trasimene, 217 BCE (phases I–V)

  The Battle of Cannae, 216 BCE (phases I–V)

  Italy During the Second Punic War

  Spain During the Second Punic War

  The Siege of New Carthage, 209 BCE (phases I–VI)

  The Battle of Baecula, 208 BCE (phases I–IV)

  The Battle of Metaurus River, 207 BCE (phases I–VI)

  The Battle of Ilipa, 206 BCE (phases I–VI)

  The North African Campaign, 204–202 BCE

  The Battle of the Great Plains, 203 BCE (phases I–III)

  The Battle of Zama, 202 BCE (phases I–XI)

  Rome’s Strategic Position, 201 BCE

  The Battle of Cynoscephelae, 197 BCE (phases I–IV)

  The Battle of Magnesia, 190 BCE (phases I–IV)

  Roman Expansion in the Mediterranean

  The Battle of Pydna, 168 BCE (phases I–III)

  The Siege of Carthage, 147–146 BCE (phase I–VIII)

  Key to Maps

  List of Illustrations

  1.

  Pyyrhus of Epirus (National Museum of Roman Civilization, Rome).

  2.

  Marble bust of Hannibal Barca found at Capua (National Museum, Naples).

  3.

  Numidian coin bearing the likeness of King Syphax (British Museum).

  4.

  Black marble bust of Scipio Africanus (National Museum, Naples).

  5.

  Hannibal Crossing the Rhône by Henri-Paul Motte (1846–1922).

  6.

  Carthaginian silver double shekel coin depicting a war elephant (British Museum).

  7.

  A fourth-century BCE Iberian falcata (National Archaeological Museum of Spain, Madrid)

  8.

  A Roman gladius.

  9.

  Roman ‘Montefortino’ type helmet (Archaeological Museum of Bologna).

  10.

  Sculpture of a Numidian horseman (The Louvre, Paris).

  11.

  Carthaginian armour as depicted on a Roman triumphal frieze in Tunisia.

  12.

  A Carthaginian shield as depicted on a Roman triumphal frieze in Tunisia.

  13.

  Ornate bronze Carthaginian triple-disc cuirass (The Bardo Museum, Tunis).

  14.

  Gold stater coin depicting Titus Quinctius Flaminius (British Museum).

  15.

  Coin of Philip V of Macedon.

  16.

  Bust of Antiochus III (The Louvre, Paris).

  17.

  A modern view of the harbour of Carthage.

  18.

  Artist’s conception of the ship sheds and admiral’s HQ at Carthage (University of Texas, Austin).

  19.

  Carthaginian ship found off the coast of Sicily (The Regional Archaeological Museum Baglio Anselmi, Marsala, Sicily).

  20.

  Carthaginian ruins at Kerkouane on the Cap Bon peninsula, Tunisia.

  21.

  Roman ruins at Carthage.

  22.

  The Capture of Carthage (1725–29) by Giovanni Battista Tiepolo (The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York).

  Chronology of the Punic Wars (264–146 BCE)

  264

  Carthage seizes the city of Messana in northeastern Sicily and control over the strategically important Strait of Messina between Sicily and Italy. Rome declares war and sends a relief army from Italy under the command of consul Appius Claudius Caudex. The First Punic War between Rome and Carthage (264–241) begins.

  260

  The Romans build a navy from scratch and, under the command of consul Gaius Duilius, win a decisive naval engagement against Carthage near Mylae in northern Sicily.

  256

  A Roman navy under the command of the consul Marcus Atilius Regulus defeats a Carthaginian fleet near Sicily’s Cape Ecnomus in the largest naval engagement of the ancient world.

  255

  Rome lands an invasion force in North Africa under the command of consul Marcus Atilius Regulus. Carthage hires the Spartan mercenary commander Xanthippus, who defeats the Roman army at Tunis and captures the consul. Rome also loses over two hundred warships in a storm off the coast of Sicily.

  249

  Carthage defeats a large Roman fleet off the western coast of Sicily in the Battle of Drepana.

  247

  Carthaginian general Hamilcar Barca is sent to Sicily to take command of the defence of the island.

  241

  A Roman navy under the command of consul Gaius Lutatius Catulus defeats a large Punic fleet at the Battle of Aegates Islands. Hamilcar sues for peace. End of the First Punic War

  240

  Hamilcar Barca’s army returns to North Africa and rebels against Carthage, initiating the Mercenary War (240–237).

  238

  Rome intervenes in Sardinia, removing Punic influence and annexing island.

  237

  Mercenary War ends. Hamilcar Barca arrives in Spain and begins consolidating Carthaginian control over the southern peninsula.

  229

  Hamilcar Barca is killed by the Oretani tribe in Spain. He is replaced by his son-in-law Hasdrubal. Hasdrubal founds the city of New Carthage as the capital of Carthaginian Spain and continues to campaign in Iberia.

  225–220

  Rome defeats Insubres and other Gallic tribes in the Po Valley, expanding its influence in northern Italy (Cisalpine Gaul).

  221

  Hasdrubal assassinated and succeeded by Hannibal Barca as governor and commanding general of Spain.

  219–218

  Hannibal attacks the Spanish city of Saguntum, taking the city after an eight-month siege. The loss of this Roman ally forces the Senate to declare war on Carthage.

  218

  Second Punic War between Rome and Carthage begins (218–201). Hannibal leaves New Carthage with large army, crosses Pyrenees, and evades Roman army at the Rhone River. Hannibal crosses the Alps, defeats Roman armies at Ticinus and Trebia. Roman general Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio arrives in Spain.

  217

  Hannibal pushes south toward Rome, evading two Roman armies sent to intercept him, and ambushes consul Gaius Flaminius at the Battle of Lake Trasimene. Quintus Fabius Maximus elected dictator in Rome and enacts policy of harassing Hannibal’s forces. Hannibal skirts Rome and winters in Apulia. Publius Cornelius Scipio (the Elder) joins brother in Spain.

  216

  Rome abandons delaying strategy and moves to engage Hannibal Barca. Hannibal defeats an enormous Roman army at Cannae. Capua and other members of the Roman Confederation defect to Punic cause.

  215

  Hannibal captures the strategically important city of Casilinum in Campania. Hannibal and Philip V of Macedon enter alliance against Rome. First Macedonian W
ar begins (215–205).

  214

  Romans retake Casilinum. The Hellenistic city-state of Syracuse defects to Carthage. Rome sends an army to Sicily under the command of Marcus Claudius Marcellus. A Roman army under the command of proconsul Marcus Valerius Laevinus defeats the Macedonians near Apollonia.

  213

  Roman attack on Syracuse fails. Romans settle into siege of the city. A Carthaginian relief army lands in Sicily.

  212

  Romans reduce Syracuse, ending the Greek city-state’s independence on the island. Hannibal takes Tarentum in Apulia, while Rome besieges the rebel city of Capua.

  211

  Hannibal marches on Rome, while the Romans take Capua and sell the population into slavery. In Spain, Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio and Publius Cornelius Scipio (the Elder) are killed.

  210

  Hannibal continues to have military success in Italy. Publius Cornelius Scipio (the Younger) appointed by Senate to command in Spain. Romans raid the coast of North Africa.

  209

  Quintus Fabius Maximus elected to fifth consulship and recaptures Tarentum. Scipio the Younger storms New Carthage.

  208

  Scipio defeats Punic forces at Baecula in Spain. Hasdrubal Barca (brother of Hannibal) leads relief army out of Spain. Romans under the command of proconsul Marcus Valerius Laevinus raid coast of North Africa.

  207

  Hasdrubal Barca invades Italy and attempts to rendezvous with Hannibal. Roman armies under the command of consuls Gaius Claudius Nero and Marcus Livius Salinator defeat and kill Hasdrubal at Metaurus River. Laevinus raids coast of North Africa.

  XV

  206

  Scipio defeats Carthaginian forces at Battle of Ilipa in Spain. Later, Scipio suppresses a rebellion led by the Spanish chief Indibilis of the Ilergetes.