November 1916 Read online

  BY ALEKSANDR SOLZHENITSYN

  August 1914 [The Red Wheel/Knot I]

  November 1916 [The Red Wheel/Knot II]

  Cancer Ward

  A Candle in the Wind

  Détente: Prospects for Democracy and Dictatorship

  East and West

  The First Circle

  The Gulag Archipelago

  Lenin in Zurich

  Letter to the Soviet Leaders

  The Mortal Danger

  Nobel Lecture

  The Oak and the Calf

  One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich

  Prussian Nights

  Rebuilding Russia

  Stories and Prose Poems

  Victory Celebrations, Prisoners,

  and The Love-Girl and the Innocent

  Warning to the West

  A World Split Apart

  ALEKSANDR SOLZHENITSYN

  NOVEMBER 1916

  THE RED WHEEL KNOT II

  TRANSLATED FROM THE RUSSIAN BY H. T. WILLETTS

  FARRAR, STRAUS AND GIROUX NEW YORK

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  Publisher’s Note

  November 1916 is the Second Knot in Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn’s The Red Wheel, the author’s epic of the roots and outbreak of the Russian Revolution. (The Third and Fourth Knots will deal with March and April of 1917.) These volumes can be read independently as well as consecutively. Thus, readers whose first encounter with The Red Wheel is November 1916 will comprehend and appreciate it without recourse to its predecessor. They may be interested to know that the First Knot, August 1914 (published in English in 1971 and revised and much expanded in 1989), deals largely with the Battles of Tannenberg and Masurian Lakes, in East Prussia, at the outbreak of World War I. Disastrous defeats of the Russians by the Germans under Hindenburg and Ludendorff, they were as much a mark of Russian ineptitude as of German military skill, culminating in the suicide of General Samsonov, commander of the Second Corps.

  A number of fictional characters from the First Knot are in the Second Knot, and their continuing roles are clear. The main protagonist is Colonel Georgi Vorotyntsev, a man far more interested in surveying the fighting front at first hand than in courting higher-ups on the General Staff.

  The dates have been changed, according to the author’s wishes, to the Western (Gregorian) calendar, setting them twelve to thirteen days ahead of the old (Julian) system used in pre-revolutionary Russia.

  Author’s Note

  The recent history of our country is so little known, or taught in such a distorted fashion, that I have felt compelled, for the sake of my younger compatriots, to include more historical matter in this Second Knot than might be expected in a work of literature. But in presenting the stenographic records of meetings and the texts of speeches and letters, I was reluctant to burden my book and the reader with the verbosity, indeed the empty verbiage, the redundancies, the irrelevancies, and the wishy-washiness so often characteristic of these utterances. I have therefore sometimes taken the liberty of condensing a whole text, or particular sentences in a text, to heighten the effect, without, however, the slightest distortion of meaning. The passages cited are always authentic, though not always verbatim. Art demands distillation of actuality.

  For the fragmentary chapter “From the Notebooks of Fyodor Kovynev,” I have used compressed excerpts from the published stories of F. Kryukov, and his private archive—his own unpublished letters and diaries, and letters from his onetime pupil at Orel, Zinaida Rumnitskaya.

  Andozerskaya is, among other things, a vehicle for the views on monarchy of Professor Ivan Aleksandrovich Ilin.

  Historical personages are introduced almost invariably under their own names and with accurate biographical data. This is true also of real but comparatively obscure characters of the period, such as the legendary leader of the Tambov peasant rising (1919–21), G. N. Pluzhnikov, and even the district clerk at Kamenka, Semyon Panyushkin (still alive when I visited the place), the secretaries of the Workers’ Group, Gutovsky and Pumpyansky, G. K. Komarov (member of the Workers’ Group at the Obukhov factory), the Shingarev and Smyslovsky families (shown in the apartments they actually occupied at the time), the inventors Kisnemsky, Podolsky, and Yampolsky, and others. The treatment of historical characters in synoptic and narrative chapters is strictly factual. For A. I. Guchkov, in addition to all the sources in the public domain, I have used his unpublished correspondence and family records.

  For my treatment of three characters—the writer Fyodor Dmitrievich Kryukov, the engineer Pyotr Akimovich Palchinsky, and General Aleksandr Andreevich Svechin (the first perished in the Civil War, the other two were executed by the Bolsheviks)—the material I was able to collect did not suffice for subsequent Knots, so that, without taking excessive liberties, I needed greater freedom of conjecture as to their behavior and their whereabouts at particular times. To give myself the necessary latitude I have changed the surnames of the first two and the given name of the third. Most of the details given about them are nonetheless historically accurate. (For all of them, as for K. A. Gvozdev and A. G. Shlyapnikov, I also made use of private memoirs preserved in the U.S.S.R.) Without altering his name I have made slight changes in the circumstances of General Aleksandr Dmitrievich Nechvolodov.

  The interval between 27 October and 17 November 1916 contains relatively few events of historical importance (the disorders on the Vyborg side on 30 October, the proceedings of the State Duma from 14 November, including Milyukov’s famous speech, and a few other episodes). But the author has chosen to deal with this period in the last prerevolutionary Knot because it encapsulates the stagnant and oppressive atmosphere of the months immediately preceding the Revolution. The author was for a long time undecided whether or not to interpolate between August 1914 and November 1916 an intermediate Knot on the course of the war, August 1915, which would have been rich in events. He finally decided against it, but fragments of the abandoned Knot are included in the present Knot II—namely, Chapter 19, a panoramic survey of 1915, and other flashbacks to the first two years of the war, as well as Chapter 7, a retrospective survey of the whole previous history of the Kadet movement.

  The author began working continuously on November 1916 in March 1971. The structure of the work quickly became clear, but the collection of material was a lengthy task, and because of harassment by the Soviet authorities in 1971, that work went slowly. However, in the course of 1971–73 the whole of the first draft, and several chapters of the second, were finished (at Ilinskoye, Rozhdestvo-Na-Istya, and Firsanovka). But at this stage, in accordance with the original plan, the work included only two of the eventual seven Lenin chapters.

  To collect material on the Kamenka rural district, and on other places in Tambov province, the author visited the area incognito on various occasions in the summers of 1965 and 1972, and subsequently supplemented his information from published sources. He originally reconstructed the battle at Skrobotovo from manuscripts in the Moscow Historical Museum, then drew on émigré sources to fill out his account. He has made use of the publications of the Workers’ Group attached to the War Industry Committee and of specialist literature on the artillery used in 1914–17. The passages on the Grenadier Brigade draw on holdings of the Central Archive of the History of War in Moscow (military and administrative documentation, muster rolls, horse counts). The author also visited, in 1966, the brigade’s position at the Uzmoshye estate.

  The author’s banishme
nt to the West interrupted work on The Red Wheel for almost the whole of 1974. But Zurich provided rich materials and direct observations that made possible a fuller treatment of the Lenin theme. All the Lenin chapters, including those intended for Knot III, were finalized in March 1975, and published in the autumn of that year in a separate volume entitled Lenin in Zurich (Paris, YMCA Press, 1975). The author originally intended to include the chapter on Shlyapnikov, completed in the U.S.S.R., but in the event the volume covered only political activity abroad.

  In 1975–79 materials from émigré publications, Russian collections abroad, and the memoirs of participants in various events sent to the author enabled him to make a considerable number of additions and corrections to November 1916, and in late 1979 and 1980 several chapters were again reworked. Additional chapters were written on the imperial family (Chapters 64, 69, and 72 were not part of the original plan).

  The final version of the Knot was completed while the work was being set up in Vermont in 1982–83.

  A full bibliography will follow Knot III.

  Contents

  CHAPTER 1

  Birds in the battle zone—the terrain along the Szara—the Russian army’s positions “humiliating”—“which places are dearest to us?”—Sanya’s heroic deed—dawn behind the Torczyc Heights—the Firebird’s feather

  CHAPTER 2

  The officers of Lieutenant Colonel Boyer’s battery—the lateral observation post—the observer’s log—preparing to fire—Sanya’s enthusiasm—he puts in a plea for Blagodarev—present weakness of the Grenadier Corps—its reputation in eclipse—Sanya no longer recognizes himself—our contribution to the march of history

  CHAPTER 3

  In the officers’ dugout—Ensign Chernega—bureaucracy and trench warfare—scrutiny of orders—argument about the Jews

  CHAPTER 4

  Arseni Blagodarev reports—his hopes for leave—Chernega needles him—history of the village of Kamenka—Sanya’s anxiety—under cover of darkness—Cheverdin dead

  CHAPTER 5

  Father Severyan despondent—grace declined—what are we to the Old Believers?—Feast of the Trinity in the church at Rogozhskoye—destruction of the Old Believers—for what reason?—Christians divided—is the Church never guilty?—where Sanya parted company with Tolstoy—is Tolstoy really a Christian?—morality and humility—secrets of existence rejected—impotence

  CHAPTER 6

  The forgotten confession—what if you don’t forgive?—the priest and the war—nature of war—dilemma: peace and evil—war not the greatest of evils—one faith does not exclude others

  CHAPTER 7 (Origins of the Kadets)

  How did the schism begin?—why were the terrorists in such a hurry?—terror as an assertion of righteousness—liberalism’s left deviation—difficulty of the middle line—original orientation of the Russian zemstvo—how it differed from Western local governmental institutions—Aleksandr III puts the brake on—self-limitation in the conduct of state affairs?—Nikolai II and “groundless dreams”—the idée fixe: hold back evolution—Shipov’s interprovincial conference in 1902—the government’s flat refusal—differentiation of zemstvo groups—formation of the League of Liberation—its program and tactics—against autocracy all means are valid!—Shipov’s outlook—models from old Russia: not self-interest but truth in social relationships—institutional relationships of “state” and “land”—Pleve sidelines Shipov—rejoicing of the liberals after Pleve’s assassination—Svyatopolk-Mirsky’s program—the Zemstvo Congress in November 1904—Shipov’s thoughts on the structure of organs of representation—schisms in the Zemstvo Congress—twilight of the banqueting campaign—the Emperor refuses, Svyatopolk-Mirsky resigns—decree of 3 March 1905, the regime backs down—unions, unions, unions: overheating the situation—Milyukov to the fore—simulation of revolution—"remove the robber gang”—conference in the Dolgorukovs’ palace approves use of violence—boycott of consultative Duma—the Kadet Party—declaration of left-wing solidarity—Milyukov’s reply to the Manifesto of 30 October—I will call up the river of Hell—Kadets refuse to join Witte’s cabinet—Shipov on the Kadets—Guchkov on the Kadets—the Emperor’s waverings—mood of the First Duma at its opening—V. Maklakov’s belated insight—Kadets impatient: down with the government!—Muromstev—implacable hostility between the First Duma and the government—Shipov’s advice on Kadet participation in government—the Duma appeals to the people on land reform—Goremykin’s efforts to dissolve the Duma—the Duma locked out—the Vyborg debate—the Vyborg appeal

  CHAPTER 8

  A bouquet of roses—awaiting her mysterious admirer—Alina’s marriage—ups and downs of her husband’s career—his morale collapses, emotions atrophy—Alina’s liberation, her meteoric rise in wartime Moscow—the “flying concert” group—Alina’s friendship with Susanna Korzner—Alina’s life could have taken such a different turn—self-denial, Moscow style—the Korzners’ circle: their dinner parties—hopelessness of the government—"show them the fist!”

  CHAPTER 9

  Susanna’s isolation in the concert party—she and Alina share confidences—scenes from the anti-German riot of 1915—the people: a show of self-respect or indiscipline?—the volcano may erupt at any time—a euphemism for persecution of the Jews—the Jews shiver—don’t let yourself be treated as an inferior being—Jews the victims of spy mania—proud of her people—why she went on concert tours

  CHAPTER 10

  (A glance at the newspapers)

  CHAPTER 11

  How should Alina celebrate her birthday?—her husband will be there!—preparations—the first moments—so tired, and all your own fault!—domestic joys, domestic cares—a dark cloud: Georgi only passing through—truce—Alina feels her affection is unrequited—an evening at Muma’s—Susanna’s advice

  CHAPTER 12

  Vorotnytsev dedicated to his regiment—purified by life at the front—the wrong war—the fatherland more important than the soldier’s trade—at one with the men in the ranks—for all these sacrifices what shall we give in return?—a war that surpasses all limits—"make peace!”—they had their chances—and the Tsar?—the Tsar reviews his troops—who manages Russia?—suffocating miasma of rumors and calumnies—rumor of a separate peace—act now, go and see for yourself!—Guchkov’s letter to General Alekseev—a conspiracy everybody knows about?—catapulted

  CHAPTER 13

  The journey—what did it all feel like before the war?—through Moscow—the explosion on the Empress Maria—trying to understand the home front—can’t take it all in—the “zemstvo hussars”—the Unions of Zemstvos and Towns—Gerber’s revelations—tied down by his telegram—across Moscow in a hansom cab—Moscow so familiar, so different—away again tomorrow?—how to tell Alina?—through the Kremlin—along Ostozhenka Street—first minutes at home—can’t get through to her—Moscow bells ring for evening service—the party—talk of Rasputin—as seen from the front line—Susanna

  CHAPTER 14

  Alina sees him off—admonition at the station—his traveling companion on the chaotic state of the economy—you read the papers, don’t you?—the illustrated press and the imperial family—Germans in the service of the throne—townsfolk run the village—treason? rubbish—was the supply of shells mismanaged?—realities of war in Romania—black marketeers on the home front—universal dishonesty—everything’s going to pieces—waiting for the war to end—his companion misses nothing—a signatory of the Vyborg appeal—on good locomotive engineers—who can he be?

  CHAPTER 15 (From the notebooks of Fyodor Kovynev)

  CHAPTER 16

  Kovynev’s work style—requirements of his editors and of the reading public—Zina Altanskaya criticizes—he plans to write The Quiet Don—what prevents an author from writing?—Kovynev observes Vorotyntsev—remembering the Vyborg appeal—the First Duma—Filipp Mironov—Kovynev shuttles between the Don and Petersburg—Tambov: a confession

  CHAPTER 17

&nbs
p; Tambov in Kovynev’s life—meets Zina on the embankment—vacillations, regrets—their letters—so bold for a girl of her age!—no taming her—tea in the twilight—Zina’s arabesques—the child—a life absurdly wasted, her strength exhausted—fresh flights of fancy—Fedya’s view of marriage—she summons him to the back of beyond, Kirsanov—best not to go? no, go!—they meet in Tambov—headlong into space

  CHAPTER 18

  Childhood of the Vorotyntsevs, brother and sister—Nanny Polya, her stories, her ways—Vera’s life in Petersburg—correspondence with her brother—areas of reticence—couples compared—at the station to meet her brother—invitation from Shingarev

  CHAPTER 19 (Society, the government, and the Tsar in 1915)

  1914: universal patriotism, and the Kadets—the Kadets’ long-term calculations—Unions of Zemstvos and Towns: arbitrary decisions, lack of financial discipline—maneuvers around prohibition—condemnation of the Bolshevik group in the Duma—Kadet loyalty unrewarded—the war is going badly—Milyukov’s caution—the May retreat, end of the truce with the government—Goremykin: an old fur coat out of mothballs—unsuccessful attempt to form a “government of unity”—character of Krivoshein—his position in society—his reluctance to accept the premiership—Kokovtsov replaced—the cabinet reshuffled—tension in the cabinet—Krivoshein purges the government, spring 1915—June conference of the Kadets: their new slogan “a government enjoying the confidence of society”—the leaders try to cool down the hotheads—who is to blame for the retreat?—the Duma deputies assemble—congresses of the Unions and the “price inflation” congress—Yanushkevich as Chief of the General Staff—decree on administration of the army in the field—its effects during the retreat—Polivanov: “the fatherland is in danger”—the ministers ask for a Council of War—ministers’ grievances against GHQ—the Grand Duke’s popularity reinforced—opening of the Duma, 1 August: antigovernment feeling runs high—the Industrial Congress—establishment of War Industry Committees, taken over by Guchkov—their commissioning role—"dissolve the Duma”—the question of category 2 militia—situation in the theater of war—refugees—Yanushkevich blames the Jews for Russian defeats—the West curtails financial aid—ultimatum on the Jewish problem—the government considers lifting residence restrictions on Jews—Polivanov describes the military situation as hopeless—he divulges the Emperor’s intention to assume the Supreme Command—the ministers perturbed—Krivoshein breaks ranks with Goremykin—the Emperor’s private resolve—Nikolai Nikolaevich exceeds his authority—the Empress’s recommendation—the Grand Duke accepts dismissal—the retreat continues—the workers suspect treason—Samarin: dissuade the Tsar from this disastrous step!—rumors of a compromise—Krivoshein proposes a placatory rescript—Rodzyanko intervenes—the ministers discuss alternative texts—can concessions really improve matters?—the Grand Duke in a hurry to go—evacuate Petrograd and Kiev?—the chaos of evacuation—the government up in the air—disturbances in Moscow and Ivanovo-Voznesensk—impotence of the Minister of the Interior—Petrograd society living it up—the excesses of the press—either give in to “society” or assert authority—Ryabushinsky publishes a plan for a new government—Krivoshein: a bureaucrat but not anathematized—the plan to create a Duma majority—formation of the Progressive Bloc—discussion of a program—a “government of trust”?—choosing a Prime Minister—Krivoshein again reluctant—his chances ruined by his support of Polivanov and Guchkov—provocative resolutions of the Moscow Duma—the change of Supreme Commander: storm in the Council of Ministers—Krivoshein contemplates an ultimatum—the dissident ministers close ranks—cabinet meeting of 2 September—the Empress reinforces the Emperor’s resolve—he stands up to the ministers—in a good mood after his victory—turbulence in the Council of Ministers, 3 September—resignation of the eight—opening of the Special Conference—the Emperor leaves for GHQ—proclamation from the Progressive Bloc—conciliatory behavior of ministers toward the Bloc—suspend the Duma?—Krivoshein withdraws into the shadows—analysis of the Bloc’s program—ministers meet the leaders of the Bloc—not a program, but seats in government—dissolve the Duma peremptorily or try to reach an understanding?—too late for Goremykin to change—Samarin’s separate stance—new anxieties for the Empress—Goremykin’s character—Goremykin at Mogilev, the Emperor’s decisions—turbulent cabinet meeting, 15 September—how to curb the Congresses of the Unions?—paucity of government forces in Moscow—pressure on Goremykin futile—Kiev about to be surrendered!—decree of 16 September dissolves the Duma—leaders of the Bloc discuss tactics—hurried Congresses of the Unions—the Empress on the Congresses and on Guchkov—strike of Moscow workers—the Kadets regret their failure to reach an understanding with the government—legend of the Black Bloc—opening of the Congresses—deputations to the Tsar: the “loyal addresses”—workers seek admission to the Congress of Towns—no explosion, it’s quieted down—the Empress calls on the Emperor to punish the ministers and the Synod—the Tsar’s reprimand to the ministers—Krivoshein’s missed chances—dismissal of Samarin and Shcherbatov—Krivoshein resigns—should the Emperor receive deputations from the Congresses?—his refusal—a lost opportunity to make peace?—a warning goes unnoticed